doc-src/Ref/theories.tex
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2 %% $Id$
4 \chapter{Theories, Terms and Types} \label{theories}
5 \index{theories|(}\index{signatures|bold}
6 \index{reading!axioms|see{\texttt{assume_ax}}} Theories organize the syntax,
7 declarations and axioms of a mathematical development.  They are built,
8 starting from the Pure or CPure theory, by extending and merging existing
9 theories.  They have the \ML\ type \mltydx{theory}.  Theory operations signal
10 errors by raising exception \xdx{THEORY}, returning a message and a list of
11 theories.
13 Signatures, which contain information about sorts, types, constants and
14 syntax, have the \ML\ type~\mltydx{Sign.sg}.  For identification, each
15 signature carries a unique list of \bfindex{stamps}, which are \ML\
16 references to strings.  The strings serve as human-readable names; the
17 references serve as unique identifiers.  Each primitive signature has a
18 single stamp.  When two signatures are merged, their lists of stamps are
19 also merged.  Every theory carries a unique signature.
21 Terms and types are the underlying representation of logical syntax.  Their
22 \ML\ definitions are irrelevant to naive Isabelle users.  Programmers who
23 wish to extend Isabelle may need to know such details, say to code a tactic
24 that looks for subgoals of a particular form.  Terms and types may be
25 certified' to be well-formed with respect to a given signature.
28 \section{Defining theories}\label{sec:ref-defining-theories}
30 Theories are defined via theory files $name$\texttt{.thy} (there are also
31 \ML-level interfaces which are only intended for people building advanced
32 theory definition packages).  Appendix~\ref{app:TheorySyntax} presents the
33 concrete syntax for theory files; here follows an explanation of the
34 constituent parts.
35 \begin{description}
36 \item[{\it theoryDef}] is the full definition.  The new theory is called $id$.
37   It is the union of the named \textbf{parent
38     theories}\indexbold{theories!parent}, possibly extended with new
39   components.  \thydx{Pure} and \thydx{CPure} are the basic theories, which
40   contain only the meta-logic.  They differ just in their concrete syntax for
41   function applications.
43   The new theory begins as a merge of its parents.
44   \begin{ttbox}
45     Attempt to merge different versions of theories: "$$T@1$$", $$\ldots$$, "$$T@n$$"
46   \end{ttbox}
47   This error may especially occur when a theory is redeclared --- say to
48   change an inappropriate definition --- and bindings to old versions persist.
49   Isabelle ensures that old and new theories of the same name are not involved
50   in a proof.
52 \item[$classes$]
53   is a series of class declarations.  Declaring {\tt$id$ < $id@1$ \dots\
54     $id@n$} makes $id$ a subclass of the existing classes $id@1\dots 55 id@n$.  This rules out cyclic class structures.  Isabelle automatically
56   computes the transitive closure of subclass hierarchies; it is not
57   necessary to declare \texttt{c < e} in addition to \texttt{c < d} and \texttt{d <
58     e}.
60 \item[$default$]
61   introduces $sort$ as the new default sort for type variables.  This applies
62   to unconstrained type variables in an input string but not to type
63   variables created internally.  If omitted, the default sort is the listwise
64   union of the default sorts of the parent theories (i.e.\ their logical
65   intersection).
67 \item[$sort$] is a finite set of classes.  A single class $id$ abbreviates the
68   sort $\{id\}$.
70 \item[$types$]
71   is a series of type declarations.  Each declares a new type constructor
72   or type synonym.  An $n$-place type constructor is specified by
73   $(\alpha@1,\dots,\alpha@n)name$, where the type variables serve only to
74   indicate the number~$n$.
76   A \textbf{type synonym}\indexbold{type synonyms} is an abbreviation
77   $(\alpha@1,\dots,\alpha@n)name = \tau$, where $name$ and $\tau$ can
78   be strings.
80 \item[$infix$]
81   declares a type or constant to be an infix operator having priority $nat$
82   and associating to the left (\texttt{infixl}) or right (\texttt{infixr}).
83   Only 2-place type constructors can have infix status; an example is {\tt
84   ('a,'b)~"*"~(infixr~20)}, which may express binary product types.
86 \item[$arities$] is a series of type arity declarations.  Each assigns
87   arities to type constructors.  The $name$ must be an existing type
88   constructor, which is given the additional arity $arity$.
90 \item[$nonterminals$]\index{*nonterminal symbols} declares purely
91   syntactic types to be used as nonterminal symbols of the context
92   free grammar.
94 \item[$consts$] is a series of constant declarations.  Each new
95   constant $name$ is given the specified type.  The optional $mixfix$
96   annotations may attach concrete syntax to the constant.
98 \item[$syntax$] \index{*syntax section}\index{print mode} is a variant
99   of $consts$ which adds just syntax without actually declaring
100   logical constants.  This gives full control over a theory's context
101   free grammar.  The optional $mode$ specifies the print mode where the
102   mixfix productions should be added.  If there is no \texttt{output}
103   option given, all productions are also added to the input syntax
104   (regardless of the print mode).
106 \item[$mixfix$] \index{mixfix declarations}
107   annotations can take three forms:
108   \begin{itemize}
109   \item A mixfix template given as a $string$ of the form
110     {\tt"}\dots{\tt\_}\dots{\tt\_}\dots{\tt"} where the $i$-th underscore
111     indicates the position where the $i$-th argument should go.  The list
112     of numbers gives the priority of each argument.  The final number gives
113     the priority of the whole construct.
115   \item A constant $f$ of type $\tau@1\To(\tau@2\To\tau)$ can be given {\bf
116     infix} status.
118   \item A constant $f$ of type $(\tau@1\To\tau@2)\To\tau$ can be given {\bf
119     binder} status.  The declaration \texttt{binder} $\cal Q$ $p$ causes
120   ${\cal Q}\,x.F(x)$ to be treated
121   like $f(F)$, where $p$ is the priority.
122   \end{itemize}
124 \item[$trans$]
125   specifies syntactic translation rules (macros).  There are three forms:
126   parse rules (\texttt{=>}), print rules (\texttt{<=}), and parse/print rules ({\tt
127   ==}).
129 \item[$rules$]
130   is a series of rule declarations.  Each has a name $id$ and the formula is
131   given by the $string$.  Rule names must be distinct within any single
132   theory.
134 \item[$defs$] is a series of definitions.  They are just like $rules$, except
135   that every $string$ must be a definition (see below for details).
137 \item[$constdefs$] combines the declaration of constants and their
138   definition.  The first $string$ is the type, the second the definition.
140 \item[$axclass$] \index{*axclass section} defines an \rmindex{axiomatic type
141     class} \cite{Wenzel:1997:TPHOL} as the intersection of existing classes,
142   with additional axioms holding.  Class axioms may not contain more than one
143   type variable.  The class axioms (with implicit sort constraints added) are
144   bound to the given names.  Furthermore a class introduction rule is
145   generated, which is automatically employed by $instance$ to prove
146   instantiations of this class.
148 \item[$instance$] \index{*instance section} proves class inclusions or
149   type arities at the logical level and then transfers these to the
150   type signature.  The instantiation is proven and checked properly.
151   The user has to supply sufficient witness information: theorems
152   ($longident$), axioms ($string$), or even arbitrary \ML{} tactic
153   code $verbatim$.
155 \item[$oracle$] links the theory to a trusted external reasoner.  It is
156   allowed to create theorems, but each theorem carries a proof object
157   describing the oracle invocation.  See \S\ref{sec:oracles} for details.
159 \item[$local$, $global$] change the current name declaration mode.
160   Initially, theories start in $local$ mode, causing all names of
161   types, constants, axioms etc.\ to be automatically qualified by the
162   theory name.  Changing this to $global$ causes all names to be
163   declared as short base names only.
165   The $local$ and $global$ declarations act like switches, affecting
166   all following theory sections until changed again explicitly.  Also
167   note that the final state at the end of the theory will persist.  In
168   particular, this determines how the names of theorems stored later
169   on are handled.
171 \item[$setup$]\index{*setup!theory} applies a list of ML functions to
172   the theory.  The argument should denote a value of type
173   \texttt{(theory -> theory) list}.  Typically, ML packages are
174   initialized in this way.
176 \item[$ml$] \index{*ML section}
177   consists of \ML\ code, typically for parse and print translation functions.
178 \end{description}
179 %
180 Chapters~\ref{Defining-Logics} and \ref{chap:syntax} explain mixfix
181 declarations, translation rules and the \texttt{ML} section in more detail.
184 \subsection{Definitions}\indexbold{definitions}
186 \textbf{Definitions} are intended to express abbreviations.  The simplest
187 form of a definition is $f \equiv t$, where $f$ is a constant.
188 Isabelle also allows a derived forms where the arguments of~$f$ appear
189 on the left, abbreviating a string of $\lambda$-abstractions.
191 Isabelle makes the following checks on definitions:
192 \begin{itemize}
193 \item Arguments (on the left-hand side) must be distinct variables.
194 \item All variables on the right-hand side must also appear on the left-hand
195   side.
196 \item All type variables on the right-hand side must also appear on
197   the left-hand side; this prohibits definitions such as {\tt
198     (zero::nat) == length ([]::'a list)}.
199 \item The definition must not be recursive.  Most object-logics provide
200   definitional principles that can be used to express recursion safely.
201 \end{itemize}
202 These checks are intended to catch the sort of errors that might be made
203 accidentally.  Misspellings, for instance, might result in additional
204 variables appearing on the right-hand side.  More elaborate checks could be
205 made, but the cost might be overly strict rules on declaration order, etc.
208 \subsection{*Classes and arities}
209 \index{classes!context conditions}\index{arities!context conditions}
211 In order to guarantee principal types~\cite{nipkow-prehofer},
212 arity declarations must obey two conditions:
213 \begin{itemize}
214 \item There must not be any two declarations $ty :: (\vec{r})c$ and
215   $ty :: (\vec{s})c$ with $\vec{r} \neq \vec{s}$.  For example, this
216   excludes the following:
217 \begin{ttbox}
218 arities
219   foo :: (\{logic{\}}) logic
220   foo :: (\{{\}})logic
221 \end{ttbox}
223 \item If there are two declarations $ty :: (s@1,\dots,s@n)c$ and $ty :: 224 (s@1',\dots,s@n')c'$ such that $c' < c$ then $s@i' \preceq s@i$ must hold
225   for $i=1,\dots,n$.  The relationship $\preceq$, defined as
226 $s' \preceq s \iff \forall c\in s. \exists c'\in s'.~ c'\le c,$
227 expresses that the set of types represented by $s'$ is a subset of the
228 set of types represented by $s$.  Assuming $term \preceq logic$, the
229 following is forbidden:
230 \begin{ttbox}
231 arities
232   foo :: (\{logic{\}})logic
233   foo :: (\{{\}})term
234 \end{ttbox}
236 \end{itemize}
242 Isabelle's theory loader manages dependencies of the internal graph of theory
243 nodes (the \emph{theory database}) and the external view of the file system.
244 See \S\ref{sec:intro-theories} for its most basic commands, such as
245 \texttt{use_thy}.  There are a few more operations available.
247 \begin{ttbox}
248 use_thy_only    : string -> unit
249 update_thy_only : string -> unit
250 touch_thy       : string -> unit
251 remove_thy      : string -> unit
252 delete_tmpfiles : bool ref \hfill\textbf{initially true}
253 \end{ttbox}
255 \begin{ttdescription}
256 \item[\ttindexbold{use_thy_only} "$name$";] is similar to \texttt{use_thy},
257   but processes the actual theory file $name$\texttt{.thy} only, ignoring
258   $name$\texttt{.ML}.  This might be useful in replaying proof scripts by hand
259   from the very beginning, starting with the fresh theory.
261 \item[\ttindexbold{update_thy_only} "$name$";] is similar to
262   \texttt{update_thy}, but processes the actual theory file
263   $name$\texttt{.thy} only, ignoring $name$\texttt{.ML}.
265 \item[\ttindexbold{touch_thy} "$name$";] marks theory node $name$ of the
266   internal graph as outdated.  While the theory remains usable, subsequent
267   operations such as \texttt{use_thy} may cause a reload.
269 \item[\ttindexbold{remove_thy} "$name$";] deletes theory node $name$,
270   including \emph{all} of its descendants.  Beware!  This is a quick way to
271   dispose a large number of theories at once.  Note that {\ML} bindings to
272   theorems etc.\ of removed theories may still persist.
274 \item[reset \ttindexbold{delete_tmpfiles};] processing theory files usually
275   involves temporary {\ML} files to be created.  By default, these are deleted
276   afterwards.  Resetting the \texttt{delete_tmpfiles} flag inhibits this,
277   leaving the generated code for debugging purposes.  The basic location for
278   temporary files is determined by the \texttt{ISABELLE_TMP} environment
279   variable (which is private to the running Isabelle process and may be
280   retrieved by \ttindex{getenv} from {\ML}).
281 \end{ttdescription}
283 \medskip Theory and {\ML} files are located by skimming through the
284 directories listed in Isabelle's internal load path, which merely contains the
285 current directory \texttt{.}'' by default.  The load path may be accessed by
286 the following operations.
288 \begin{ttbox}
289 show_path: unit -> string list
291 del_path: string -> unit
292 reset_path: unit -> unit
293 with_path: string -> ('a -> 'b) -> 'a -> 'b
294 \end{ttbox}
296 \begin{ttdescription}
297 \item[\ttindexbold{show_path}();] displays the load path components in
298   canonical string representation (which is always according to Unix rules).
300 \item[\ttindexbold{add_path} "$dir$";] adds component $dir$ to the beginning
303 \item[\ttindexbold{del_path} "$dir$";] removes any occurrences of component
304   $dir$ from the load path.
306 \item[\ttindexbold{reset_path}();] resets the load path to `\texttt{.}''
307   (current directory) only.
309 \item[\ttindexbold{with_path} "$dir$" $f$ $x$;] temporarily adds component
310   $dir$ to the beginning of the load path before executing $(f~x)$.
312 \end{ttdescription}
314 Furthermore, in operations referring indirectly to some file (e.g.\
315 \texttt{use_dir}) the argument may be prefixed by a directory that will be
316 temporarily appended to the load path, too.
319 \section{Locales}
320 \label{Locales}
322 Locales \cite{kammueller-locales} are a concept of local proof contexts.  They
323 are introduced as named syntactic objects within theories and can be
324 opened in any descendant theory.
326 \subsection{Declaring Locales}
328 A locale is declared in a theory section that starts with the
329 keyword \texttt{locale}.  It consists typically of three parts, the
330 \texttt{fixes} part, the \texttt{assumes} part, and the \texttt{defines} part.
331 Appendix \ref{app:TheorySyntax} presents the full syntax.
333 \subsubsection{Parts of Locales}
335 The subsection introduced by the keyword \texttt{fixes} declares the locale
336 constants in a way that closely resembles a global \texttt{consts}
337 declaration.  In particular, there may be an optional pretty printing syntax
338 for the locale constants.
340 The subsequent \texttt{assumes} part specifies the locale rules.  They are
341 defined like \texttt{rules}: by an identifier followed by the rule
342 given as a string.  Locale rules admit the statement of local assumptions
343 about the locale constants.  The \texttt{assumes} part is optional.  Non-fixed
344 variables in locale rules are automatically bound by the universal quantifier
345 \texttt{!!} of the meta-logic.
347 Finally, the \texttt{defines} part introduces the definitions that are
348 available in the locale.  Locale constants declared in the \texttt{fixes}
349 section are defined using the meta-equality \texttt{==}.  If the
350 locale constant is a functiond then its definition can (as usual) have
351 variables on the left-hand side acting as formal parameters; they are
352 considered as schematic variables and are automatically generalized by
353 universal quantification of the meta-logic.  The right hand side of a
354 definition must not contain variables that are not already on the left hand
355 side.  In so far locale definitions behave like theory level definitions.
356 However, the locale concept realizes \emph{dependent definitions}: any variable
357 that is fixed as a locale constant can occur on the right hand side of
358 definitions.  For an illustration of these dependent definitions see the
359 occurrence of the locale constant \texttt{G} on the right hand side of the
360 definitions of the locale \texttt{group} below.  Naturally, definitions can
361 already use the syntax of the locale constants in the \texttt{fixes}
362 subsection.  The \texttt{defines} part is, as the \texttt{assumes} part,
363 optional.
365 \subsubsection{Example for Definition}
366 The concrete syntax of locale definitions is demonstrated by example below.
368 Locale \texttt{group} assumes the definition of groups in a theory
369 file\footnote{This and other examples are from \texttt{HOL/ex}.}.  A locale
370 defining a convenient proof environment for group related proofs may be
371 added to the theory as follows:
372 \begin{ttbox}
373   locale group =
374     fixes
375       G         :: "'a grouptype"
376       e         :: "'a"
377       binop     :: "'a => 'a => 'a"        (infixr "#" 80)
378       inv       :: "'a => 'a"              ("i(_)" [90] 91)
379     assumes
380       Group_G   "G: Group"
381     defines
382       e_def     "e == unit G"
383       binop_def "x # y == bin_op G x y"
384       inv_def   "i(x) == inverse G x"
385 \end{ttbox}
387 \subsubsection{Polymorphism}
389 In contrast to polymorphic definitions in theories, the use of the
390 same type variable for the declaration of different locale constants in the
391 fixes part means \emph{the same} type.  In other words, the scope of the
392 polymorphic variables is extended over all constant declarations of a locale.
393 In the above example \texttt{'a} refers to the same type which is fixed inside
394 the locale.  In an exported theorem (see \S\ref{sec:locale-export}) the
395 constructors of locale \texttt{group} are polymorphic, yet only simultaneously
396 instantiatable.
398 \subsubsection{Nested Locales}
400 A locale can be defined as the extension of a previously defined
401 locale.  This operation of extension is optional and is syntactically
402 expressed as
403 \begin{ttbox}
404 locale foo = bar + ...
405 \end{ttbox}
406 The locale \texttt{foo} builds on the constants and syntax of the locale {\tt
407 bar}.  That is, all contents of the locale \texttt{bar} can be used in
408 definitions and rules of the corresponding parts of the locale {\tt
409 foo}.  Although locale \texttt{foo} assumes the \texttt{fixes} part of \texttt{bar} it
410 does not automatically subsume its rules and definitions.  Normally, one
411 expects to use locale \texttt{foo} only if locale \texttt{bar} is already
412 active.  These aspects of use and activation of locales are considered in the
413 subsequent section.
416 \subsection{Locale Scope}
418 Locales are by default inactive, but they can be invoked.  The list of
419 currently active locales is called \emph{scope}.  The process of activating
420 them is called \emph{opening}; the reverse is \emph{closing}.
422 \subsubsection{Scope}
423 The locale scope is part of each theory.  It is a dynamic stack containing
424 all active locales at a certain point in an interactive session.
425 The scope lives until all locales are explicitly closed.  At one time there
426 can be more than one locale open.  The contents of these various active
427 locales are all visible in the scope.  In case of nested locales for example,
428 the nesting is actually reflected to the scope, which contains the nested
429 locales as layers.  To check the state of the scope during a development the
430 function \texttt{Print\_scope} may be used.  It displays the names of all open
431 locales on the scope.  The function \texttt{print\_locales} applied to a theory
432 displays all locales contained in that theory and in addition also the
433 current scope.
435 The scope is manipulated by the commands for opening and closing of locales.
437 \subsubsection{Opening}
438 Locales can be \emph{opened} at any point during a session where
439 we want to prove theorems concerning the locale.  Opening a locale means
440 making its contents visible by pushing it onto the scope of the current
441 theory.  Inside a scope of opened locales, theorems can use all definitions and
442 rules contained in the locales on the scope.  The rules and definitions may
443 be accessed individually using the function \ttindex{thm}.  This function is
444 applied to the names assigned to locale rules and definitions as
445 strings.  The opening command is called \texttt{Open\_locale} and takes the
446 name of the locale to be opened as its argument.
448 If one opens a locale \texttt{foo} that is defined by extension from locale
449 \texttt{bar}, the function \texttt{Open\_locale} checks if locale \texttt{bar}
450 is open.  If so, then it just opens \texttt{foo}, if not, then it prints a
451 message and opens \texttt{bar} before opening \texttt{foo}.  Naturally, this
452 carries on, if \texttt{bar} is again an extension.
454 \subsubsection{Closing}
456 \emph{Closing} means to cancel the last opened locale, pushing it out of the
457 scope.  Theorems proved during the life cycle of this locale will be disabled,
458 unless they have been explicitly exported, as described below.  However, when
459 the same locale is opened again these theorems may be used again as well,
460 provided that they were saved as theorems in the first place, using
461 \texttt{qed} or ML assignment.  The command \texttt{Close\_locale} takes a
462 locale name as a string and checks if this locale is actually the topmost
463 locale on the scope.  If this is the case, it removes this locale, otherwise
464 it prints a warning message and does not change the scope.
466 \subsubsection{Export of Theorems}
467 \label{sec:locale-export}
469 Export of theorems transports theorems out of the scope of locales.  Locale
470 rules that have been used in the proof of an exported theorem inside the
471 locale are carried by the exported form of the theorem as its individual
472 meta-assumptions.  The locale constants are universally quantified variables
473 in these theorems, hence such theorems can be instantiated individually.
474 Definitions become unfolded; locale constants that were merely used for
475 definitions vanish.  Logically, exporting corresponds to a combined
476 application of introduction rules for implication and universal
477 quantification.  Exporting forms a kind of normalization of theorems in a
478 locale scope.
480 According to the possibility of nested locales there are two different forms
481 of export.  The first one is realized by the function \texttt{export} that
482 exports theorems through all layers of opened locales of the scope.  Hence,
483 the application of export to a theorem yields a theorem of the global level,
484 that is, the current theory context without any local assumptions or
485 definitions.
487 When locales are nested we might want to export a theorem, not to the global
488 level of the current theory but just to the previous level.  The other export
489 function, \texttt{Export}, transports theorems one level up in the scope; the
490 theorem still uses locale constants, definitions and rules of the locales
491 underneath.
493 \subsection{Functions for Locales}
494 \label{Syntax}
495 \index{locales!functions}
497 Here is a quick reference list of locale functions.
498 \begin{ttbox}
499   Open_locale  : xstring -> unit
500   Close_locale : xstring -> unit
501   export       :     thm -> thm
502   Export       :     thm -> thm
503   thm          : xstring -> thm
504   Print_scope  :    unit -> unit
505   print_locales:  theory -> unit
506 \end{ttbox}
507 \begin{ttdescription}
508 \item[\ttindexbold{Open_locale} $xstring$]
509     opens the locale {\it xstring}, adding it to the scope of the theory of the
510   current context.  If the opened locale is built by extension, the ancestors
511   are opened automatically.
513 \item[\ttindexbold{Close_locale} $xstring$] eliminates the locale {\it
514     xstring} from the scope if it is the topmost item on it, otherwise it does
515   not change the scope and produces a warning.
517 \item[\ttindexbold{export} $thm$] locale definitions become expanded in {\it
518     thm} and locale rules that were used in the proof of {\it thm} become part
519   of its individual assumptions.  This normalization happens with respect to
520   \emph{all open locales} on the scope.
522 \item[\ttindexbold{Export} $thm$] works like \texttt{export} but normalizes
523   theorems only up to the previous level of locales on the scope.
525 \item[\ttindexbold{thm} $xstring$] applied to the name of a locale definition
526   or rule it returns the definition as a theorem.
528 \item[\ttindexbold{Print_scope}()] prints the names of the locales in the
529   current scope of the current theory context.
531 \item[\ttindexbold{print_locale} $theory$] prints all locales that are
532   contained in {\it theory} directly or indirectly.  It also displays the
533   current scope similar to \texttt{Print\_scope}.
534 \end{ttdescription}
537 \section{Basic operations on theories}\label{BasicOperationsOnTheories}
539 \subsection{*Theory inclusion}
540 \begin{ttbox}
541 subthy      : theory * theory -> bool
542 eq_thy      : theory * theory -> bool
543 transfer    : theory -> thm -> thm
544 transfer_sg : Sign.sg -> thm -> thm
545 \end{ttbox}
547 Inclusion and equality of theories is determined by unique
548 identification stamps that are created when declaring new components.
549 Theorems contain a reference to the theory (actually to its signature)
550 they have been derived in.  Transferring theorems to super theories
551 has no logical significance, but may affect some operations in subtle
552 ways (e.g.\ implicit merges of signatures when applying rules, or
553 pretty printing of theorems).
555 \begin{ttdescription}
557 \item[\ttindexbold{subthy} ($thy@1$, $thy@2$)] determines if $thy@1$
558   is included in $thy@2$ wrt.\ identification stamps.
560 \item[\ttindexbold{eq_thy} ($thy@1$, $thy@2$)] determines if $thy@1$
561   is exactly the same as $thy@2$.
563 \item[\ttindexbold{transfer} $thy$ $thm$] transfers theorem $thm$ to
564   theory $thy$, provided the latter includes the theory of $thm$.
566 \item[\ttindexbold{transfer_sg} $sign$ $thm$] is similar to
567   \texttt{transfer}, but identifies the super theory via its
568   signature.
570 \end{ttdescription}
573 \subsection{*Primitive theories}
574 \begin{ttbox}
575 ProtoPure.thy  : theory
576 Pure.thy       : theory
577 CPure.thy      : theory
578 \end{ttbox}
579 \begin{description}
580 \item[\ttindexbold{ProtoPure.thy}, \ttindexbold{Pure.thy},
581   \ttindexbold{CPure.thy}] contain the syntax and signature of the
582   meta-logic.  There are basically no axioms: meta-level inferences
583   are carried out by \ML\ functions.  \texttt{Pure} and \texttt{CPure}
584   just differ in their concrete syntax of prefix function application:
585   $t(u@1, \ldots, u@n)$ in \texttt{Pure} vs.\ $t\,u@1,\ldots\,u@n$ in
586   \texttt{CPure}.  \texttt{ProtoPure} is their common parent,
587   containing no syntax for printing prefix applications at all!
589 %% FIXME
590 %\item [\ttindexbold{extend_theory} $thy$ {\tt"}$T${\tt"} $\cdots$] extends
591 %  the theory $thy$ with new types, constants, etc.  $T$ identifies the theory
592 %  internally.  When a theory is redeclared, say to change an incorrect axiom,
593 %  bindings to the old axiom may persist.  Isabelle ensures that the old and
594 %  new theories are not involved in the same proof.  Attempting to combine
595 %  different theories having the same name $T$ yields the fatal error
596 %extend_theory  : theory -> string -> $$\cdots$$ -> theory
597 %\begin{ttbox}
598 %Attempt to merge different versions of theory: $$T$$
599 %\end{ttbox}
600 \end{description}
602 %% FIXME
603 %\item [\ttindexbold{extend_theory} $thy$ {\tt"}$T${\tt"}
604 %      ($classes$, $default$, $types$, $arities$, $consts$, $sextopt$) $rules$]
605 %\hfill\break   %%% include if line is just too short
606 %is the \ML{} equivalent of the following theory definition:
607 %\begin{ttbox}
608 %$$T$$ = $$thy$$ +
609 %classes $$c$$ < $$c@1$$,$$\dots$$,$$c@m$$
610 %        \dots
611 %default {$$d@1,\dots,d@r$$}
612 %types   $$tycon@1$$,\dots,$$tycon@i$$ $$n$$
613 %        \dots
614 %arities $$tycon@1'$$,\dots,$$tycon@j'$$ :: ($$s@1$$,\dots,$$s@n$$)$$c$$
615 %        \dots
616 %consts  $$b@1$$,\dots,$$b@k$$ :: $$\tau$$
617 %        \dots
618 %rules   $$name$$ $$rule$$
619 %        \dots
620 %end
621 %\end{ttbox}
622 %where
623 %\begin{tabular}[t]{l@{~=~}l}
624 %$classes$ & \tt[("$c$",["$c@1$",\dots,"$c@m$"]),\dots] \\
625 %$default$ & \tt["$d@1$",\dots,"$d@r$"]\\
626 %$types$   & \tt[([$tycon@1$,\dots,$tycon@i$], $n$),\dots] \\
627 %$arities$ & \tt[([$tycon'@1$,\dots,$tycon'@j$], ([$s@1$,\dots,$s@n$],$c$)),\dots]
628 %\\
629 %$consts$  & \tt[([$b@1$,\dots,$b@k$],$\tau$),\dots] \\
630 %$rules$   & \tt[("$name$",$rule$),\dots]
631 %\end{tabular}
634 \subsection{Inspecting a theory}\label{sec:inspct-thy}
635 \index{theories!inspecting|bold}
636 \begin{ttbox}
637 print_syntax        : theory -> unit
638 print_theory        : theory -> unit
639 parents_of          : theory -> theory list
640 ancestors_of        : theory -> theory list
641 sign_of             : theory -> Sign.sg
642 Sign.stamp_names_of : Sign.sg -> string list
643 \end{ttbox}
644 These provide means of viewing a theory's components.
645 \begin{ttdescription}
646 \item[\ttindexbold{print_syntax} $thy$] prints the syntax of $thy$
647   (grammar, macros, translation functions etc., see
648   page~\pageref{pg:print_syn} for more details).
650 \item[\ttindexbold{print_theory} $thy$] prints the logical parts of
651   $thy$, excluding the syntax.
653 \item[\ttindexbold{parents_of} $thy$] returns the direct ancestors
654   of~$thy$.
656 \item[\ttindexbold{ancestors_of} $thy$] returns all ancestors of~$thy$
657   (not including $thy$ itself).
659 \item[\ttindexbold{sign_of} $thy$] returns the signature associated
660   with~$thy$.  It is useful with functions like {\tt
661     read_instantiate_sg}, which take a signature as an argument.
663 \item[\ttindexbold{Sign.stamp_names_of} $sg$]\index{signatures}
664   returns the names of the identification \rmindex{stamps} of ax
665   signature.  These coincide with the names of its full ancestry
666   including that of $sg$ itself.
668 \end{ttdescription}
671 \section{Terms}
672 \index{terms|bold}
673 Terms belong to the \ML\ type \mltydx{term}, which is a concrete datatype
674 with six constructors:
675 \begin{ttbox}
676 type indexname = string * int;
677 infix 9 $; 678 datatype term = Const of string * typ 679 | Free of string * typ 680 | Var of indexname * typ 681 | Bound of int 682 | Abs of string * typ * term 683 | op$  of term * term;
684 \end{ttbox}
685 \begin{ttdescription}
686 \item[\ttindexbold{Const} ($a$, $T$)] \index{constants|bold}
687   is the \textbf{constant} with name~$a$ and type~$T$.  Constants include
688   connectives like $\land$ and $\forall$ as well as constants like~0
689   and~$Suc$.  Other constants may be required to define a logic's concrete
690   syntax.
692 \item[\ttindexbold{Free} ($a$, $T$)] \index{variables!free|bold}
693   is the \textbf{free variable} with name~$a$ and type~$T$.
695 \item[\ttindexbold{Var} ($v$, $T$)] \index{unknowns|bold}
696   is the \textbf{scheme variable} with indexname~$v$ and type~$T$.  An
697   \mltydx{indexname} is a string paired with a non-negative index, or
698   subscript; a term's scheme variables can be systematically renamed by
699   incrementing their subscripts.  Scheme variables are essentially free
700   variables, but may be instantiated during unification.
702 \item[\ttindexbold{Bound} $i$] \index{variables!bound|bold}
703   is the \textbf{bound variable} with de Bruijn index~$i$, which counts the
704   number of lambdas, starting from zero, between a variable's occurrence
705   and its binding.  The representation prevents capture of variables.  For
707   Paulson~\cite[page~376]{paulson-ml2}.
709 \item[\ttindexbold{Abs} ($a$, $T$, $u$)]
710   \index{lambda abs@$\lambda$-abstractions|bold}
711   is the $\lambda$-\textbf{abstraction} with body~$u$, and whose bound
712   variable has name~$a$ and type~$T$.  The name is used only for parsing
713   and printing; it has no logical significance.
715 \item[$t$ \u$] \index{$@{\tt\$}|bold} \index{function applications|bold} 716 is the \textbf{application} of~$t$to~$u$. 717 \end{ttdescription} 718 Application is written as an infix operator to aid readability. Here is an 719 \ML\ pattern to recognize FOL formulae of the form~$A\imp B$, binding the 720 subformulae to~$A$and~$B$: 721 \begin{ttbox} 722 Const("Trueprop",_)$ (Const("op -->",_) $A$ B)
723 \end{ttbox}
726 \section{*Variable binding}
727 \begin{ttbox}
728 loose_bnos     : term -> int list
729 incr_boundvars : int -> term -> term
730 abstract_over  : term*term -> term
731 variant_abs    : string * typ * term -> string * term
732 aconv          : term * term -> bool\hfill\textbf{infix}
733 \end{ttbox}
734 These functions are all concerned with the de Bruijn representation of
735 bound variables.
736 \begin{ttdescription}
737 \item[\ttindexbold{loose_bnos} $t$]
738   returns the list of all dangling bound variable references.  In
739   particular, \texttt{Bound~0} is loose unless it is enclosed in an
740   abstraction.  Similarly \texttt{Bound~1} is loose unless it is enclosed in
741   at least two abstractions; if enclosed in just one, the list will contain
742   the number 0.  A well-formed term does not contain any loose variables.
744 \item[\ttindexbold{incr_boundvars} $j$]
745   increases a term's dangling bound variables by the offset~$j$.  This is
746   required when moving a subterm into a context where it is enclosed by a
747   different number of abstractions.  Bound variables with a matching
748   abstraction are unaffected.
750 \item[\ttindexbold{abstract_over} $(v,t)$]
751   forms the abstraction of~$t$ over~$v$, which may be any well-formed term.
752   It replaces every occurrence of $$v$$ by a \texttt{Bound} variable with the
753   correct index.
755 \item[\ttindexbold{variant_abs} $(a,T,u)$]
756   substitutes into $u$, which should be the body of an abstraction.
757   It replaces each occurrence of the outermost bound variable by a free
758   variable.  The free variable has type~$T$ and its name is a variant
759   of~$a$ chosen to be distinct from all constants and from all variables
760   free in~$u$.
762 \item[$t$ \ttindexbold{aconv} $u$]
763   tests whether terms~$t$ and~$u$ are $$\alpha$$-convertible: identical up
764   to renaming of bound variables.
765 \begin{itemize}
766   \item
767     Two constants, \texttt{Free}s, or \texttt{Var}s are $$\alpha$$-convertible
768     if their names and types are equal.
769     (Variables having the same name but different types are thus distinct.
770     This confusing situation should be avoided!)
771   \item
772     Two bound variables are $$\alpha$$-convertible
773     if they have the same number.
774   \item
775     Two abstractions are $$\alpha$$-convertible
776     if their bodies are, and their bound variables have the same type.
777   \item
778     Two applications are $$\alpha$$-convertible
779     if the corresponding subterms are.
780 \end{itemize}
782 \end{ttdescription}
784 \section{Certified terms}\index{terms!certified|bold}\index{signatures}
785 A term $t$ can be \textbf{certified} under a signature to ensure that every type
786 in~$t$ is well-formed and every constant in~$t$ is a type instance of a
787 constant declared in the signature.  The term must be well-typed and its use
788 of bound variables must be well-formed.  Meta-rules such as \texttt{forall_elim}
789 take certified terms as arguments.
791 Certified terms belong to the abstract type \mltydx{cterm}.
792 Elements of the type can only be created through the certification process.
793 In case of error, Isabelle raises exception~\ttindex{TERM}\@.
795 \subsection{Printing terms}
796 \index{terms!printing of}
797 \begin{ttbox}
798      string_of_cterm :           cterm -> string
799 Sign.string_of_term  : Sign.sg -> term -> string
800 \end{ttbox}
801 \begin{ttdescription}
802 \item[\ttindexbold{string_of_cterm} $ct$]
803 displays $ct$ as a string.
805 \item[\ttindexbold{Sign.string_of_term} $sign$ $t$]
806 displays $t$ as a string, using the syntax of~$sign$.
807 \end{ttdescription}
809 \subsection{Making and inspecting certified terms}
810 \begin{ttbox}
811 cterm_of       : Sign.sg -> term -> cterm
812 read_cterm     : Sign.sg -> string * typ -> cterm
813 cert_axm       : Sign.sg -> string * term -> string * term
814 read_axm       : Sign.sg -> string * string -> string * term
815 rep_cterm      : cterm -> \{T:typ, t:term, sign:Sign.sg, maxidx:int\}
816 Sign.certify_term : Sign.sg -> term -> term * typ * int
817 \end{ttbox}
818 \begin{ttdescription}
820 \item[\ttindexbold{cterm_of} $sign$ $t$] \index{signatures} certifies
821   $t$ with respect to signature~$sign$.
823 \item[\ttindexbold{read_cterm} $sign$ ($s$, $T$)] reads the string~$s$
824   using the syntax of~$sign$, creating a certified term.  The term is
825   checked to have type~$T$; this type also tells the parser what kind
826   of phrase to parse.
828 \item[\ttindexbold{cert_axm} $sign$ ($name$, $t$)] certifies $t$ with
829   respect to $sign$ as a meta-proposition and converts all exceptions
830   to an error, including the final message
831 \begin{ttbox}
832 The error(s) above occurred in axiom "$$name$$"
833 \end{ttbox}
835 \item[\ttindexbold{read_axm} $sign$ ($name$, $s$)] similar to {\tt
836     cert_axm}, but first reads the string $s$ using the syntax of
837   $sign$.
839 \item[\ttindexbold{rep_cterm} $ct$] decomposes $ct$ as a record
840   containing its type, the term itself, its signature, and the maximum
841   subscript of its unknowns.  The type and maximum subscript are
842   computed during certification.
844 \item[\ttindexbold{Sign.certify_term}] is a more primitive version of
845   \texttt{cterm_of}, returning the internal representation instead of
846   an abstract \texttt{cterm}.
848 \end{ttdescription}
851 \section{Types}\index{types|bold}
852 Types belong to the \ML\ type \mltydx{typ}, which is a concrete datatype with
853 three constructor functions.  These correspond to type constructors, free
854 type variables and schematic type variables.  Types are classified by sorts,
855 which are lists of classes (representing an intersection).  A class is
856 represented by a string.
857 \begin{ttbox}
858 type class = string;
859 type sort  = class list;
861 datatype typ = Type  of string * typ list
862              | TFree of string * sort
863              | TVar  of indexname * sort;
865 infixr 5 -->;
866 fun S --> T = Type ("fun", [S, T]);
867 \end{ttbox}
868 \begin{ttdescription}
869 \item[\ttindexbold{Type} ($a$, $Ts$)] \index{type constructors|bold}
870   applies the \textbf{type constructor} named~$a$ to the type operand list~$Ts$.
871   Type constructors include~\tydx{fun}, the binary function space
872   constructor, as well as nullary type constructors such as~\tydx{prop}.
873   Other type constructors may be introduced.  In expressions, but not in
874   patterns, \hbox{\tt$S$-->$T$} is a convenient shorthand for function
875   types.
877 \item[\ttindexbold{TFree} ($a$, $s$)] \index{type variables|bold}
878   is the \textbf{type variable} with name~$a$ and sort~$s$.
880 \item[\ttindexbold{TVar} ($v$, $s$)] \index{type unknowns|bold}
881   is the \textbf{type unknown} with indexname~$v$ and sort~$s$.
882   Type unknowns are essentially free type variables, but may be
883   instantiated during unification.
884 \end{ttdescription}
887 \section{Certified types}
888 \index{types!certified|bold}
889 Certified types, which are analogous to certified terms, have type
890 \ttindexbold{ctyp}.
892 \subsection{Printing types}
893 \index{types!printing of}
894 \begin{ttbox}
895      string_of_ctyp :           ctyp -> string
896 Sign.string_of_typ  : Sign.sg -> typ -> string
897 \end{ttbox}
898 \begin{ttdescription}
899 \item[\ttindexbold{string_of_ctyp} $cT$]
900 displays $cT$ as a string.
902 \item[\ttindexbold{Sign.string_of_typ} $sign$ $T$]
903 displays $T$ as a string, using the syntax of~$sign$.
904 \end{ttdescription}
907 \subsection{Making and inspecting certified types}
908 \begin{ttbox}
909 ctyp_of          : Sign.sg -> typ -> ctyp
910 rep_ctyp         : ctyp -> \{T: typ, sign: Sign.sg\}
911 Sign.certify_typ : Sign.sg -> typ -> typ
912 \end{ttbox}
913 \begin{ttdescription}
915 \item[\ttindexbold{ctyp_of} $sign$ $T$] \index{signatures} certifies
916   $T$ with respect to signature~$sign$.
918 \item[\ttindexbold{rep_ctyp} $cT$] decomposes $cT$ as a record
919   containing the type itself and its signature.
921 \item[\ttindexbold{Sign.certify_typ}] is a more primitive version of
922   \texttt{ctyp_of}, returning the internal representation instead of
923   an abstract \texttt{ctyp}.
925 \end{ttdescription}
928 \section{Oracles: calling trusted external reasoners}
929 \label{sec:oracles}
930 \index{oracles|(}
932 Oracles allow Isabelle to take advantage of external reasoners such as
933 arithmetic decision procedures, model checkers, fast tautology checkers or
934 computer algebra systems.  Invoked as an oracle, an external reasoner can
935 create arbitrary Isabelle theorems.  It is your responsibility to ensure that
936 the external reasoner is as trustworthy as your application requires.
937 Isabelle's proof objects~(\S\ref{sec:proofObjects}) record how each theorem
938 depends upon oracle calls.
940 \begin{ttbox}
941 invoke_oracle     : theory -> xstring -> Sign.sg * object -> thm
942 Theory.add_oracle : bstring * (Sign.sg * object -> term) -> theory
943                     -> theory
944 \end{ttbox}
945 \begin{ttdescription}
946 \item[\ttindexbold{invoke_oracle} $thy$ $name$ ($sign$, $data$)]
947   invokes the oracle $name$ of theory $thy$ passing the information
948   contained in the exception value $data$ and creating a theorem
949   having signature $sign$.  Note that type \ttindex{object} is just an
950   abbreviation for \texttt{exn}.  Errors arise if $thy$ does not have
951   an oracle called $name$, if the oracle rejects its arguments or if
952   its result is ill-typed.
954 \item[\ttindexbold{Theory.add_oracle} $name$ $fun$ $thy$] extends
955   $thy$ by oracle $fun$ called $name$.  It is seldom called
956   explicitly, as there is concrete syntax for oracles in theory files.
957 \end{ttdescription}
959 A curious feature of {\ML} exceptions is that they are ordinary constructors.
960 The {\ML} type \texttt{exn} is a datatype that can be extended at any time.  (See
961 my {\em {ML} for the Working Programmer}~\cite{paulson-ml2}, especially
962 page~136.)  The oracle mechanism takes advantage of this to allow an oracle to
963 take any information whatever.
965 There must be some way of invoking the external reasoner from \ML, either
966 because it is coded in {\ML} or via an operating system interface.  Isabelle
967 expects the {\ML} function to take two arguments: a signature and an
968 exception object.
969 \begin{itemize}
970 \item The signature will typically be that of a desendant of the theory
971   declaring the oracle.  The oracle will use it to distinguish constants from
972   variables, etc., and it will be attached to the generated theorems.
974 \item The exception is used to pass arbitrary information to the oracle.  This
975   information must contain a full description of the problem to be solved by
976   the external reasoner, including any additional information that might be
977   required.  The oracle may raise the exception to indicate that it cannot
978   solve the specified problem.
979 \end{itemize}
981 A trivial example is provided in theory \texttt{FOL/ex/IffOracle}.  This
982 oracle generates tautologies of the form $P\bimp\cdots\bimp P$, with
983 an even number of $P$s.
985 The \texttt{ML} section of \texttt{IffOracle.thy} begins by declaring
986 a few auxiliary functions (suppressed below) for creating the
987 tautologies.  Then it declares a new exception constructor for the
988 information required by the oracle: here, just an integer. It finally
989 defines the oracle function itself.
990 \begin{ttbox}
991 exception IffOracleExn of int;\medskip
992 fun mk_iff_oracle (sign, IffOracleExn n) =
993   if n > 0 andalso n mod 2 = 0
994   then Trueprop \$mk_iff n 995 else raise IffOracleExn n; 996 \end{ttbox} 997 Observe the function's two arguments, the signature \texttt{sign} and the 998 exception given as a pattern. The function checks its argument for 999 validity. If$n$is positive and even then it creates a tautology 1000 containing$n$occurrences of~$P\$.  Otherwise it signals error by
1001 raising its own exception (just by happy coincidence).  Errors may be
1002 signalled by other means, such as returning the theorem \texttt{True}.
1003 Please ensure that the oracle's result is correctly typed; Isabelle
1004 will reject ill-typed theorems by raising a cryptic exception at top
1005 level.
1007 The \texttt{oracle} section of \texttt{IffOracle.thy} installs above
1008 \texttt{ML} function as follows:
1009 \begin{ttbox}
1010 IffOracle = FOL +\medskip
1011 oracle
1012   iff = mk_iff_oracle\medskip
1013 end
1014 \end{ttbox}
1016 Now in \texttt{IffOracle.ML} we first define a wrapper for invoking
1017 the oracle:
1018 \begin{ttbox}
1019 fun iff_oracle n = invoke_oracle IffOracle.thy "iff"
1020                       (sign_of IffOracle.thy, IffOracleExn n);
1021 \end{ttbox}
1023 Here are some example applications of the \texttt{iff} oracle.  An
1024 argument of 10 is allowed, but one of 5 is forbidden:
1025 \begin{ttbox}
1026 iff_oracle 10;
1027 {\out  "P <-> P <-> P <-> P <-> P <-> P <-> P <-> P <-> P <-> P" : thm}
1028 iff_oracle 5;
1029 {\out Exception- IffOracleExn 5 raised}
1030 \end{ttbox}
1032 \index{oracles|)}
1033 \index{theories|)}
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