
diff -r cb9d47632573 -r 2665170f104a doc-src/TutorialI/ToyList/document/ToyList.tex
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+++ b/doc-src/TutorialI/ToyList/document/ToyList.tex	Wed Apr 19 12:59:38 2000 +0200
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+\begin{isabelle}%
+\isacommand{theory}~ToyList~=~PreList:%
+\begin{isamarkuptext}%
+\noindent
+HOL already has a predefined theory of lists called \texttt{List} ---
+\texttt{ToyList} is merely a small fragment of it chosen as an example. In
+contrast to what is recommended in \S\ref{sec:Basic:Theories},
+\texttt{ToyList} is not based on \texttt{Main} but on \texttt{PreList}, a
+theory that contains pretty much everything but lists, thus avoiding
+ambiguities caused by defining lists twice.%
+\end{isamarkuptext}%
+\isacommand{datatype}~'a~list~=~Nil~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~({"}[]{"})\isanewline
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~|~Cons~'a~{"}'a~list{"}~~~~~~~~~~~~(\isakeyword{infixr}~{"}\#{"}~65)%
+\begin{isamarkuptext}%
+\noindent
+The datatype\index{*datatype} \isaindexbold{list} introduces two
+constructors \isaindexbold{Nil} and \isaindexbold{Cons}, the
+empty list and the operator that adds an element to the front of a list. For
+example, the term \isa{Cons True (Cons   False Nil)} is a value of type
+\isa{bool~list}, namely the list with the elements \isa{True} and
+\isa{False}. Because this notation becomes unwieldy very quickly, the
+datatype declaration is annotated with an alternative syntax: instead of
+\isa{Nil} and \isa{Cons~$x$~$xs$} we can write
+\isa{[]}\index{$HOL2list@\texttt{[]}|bold} and
+\isa{$x$~\#~$xs$}\index{$HOL2list@\texttt{\#}|bold}. In fact, this
+alternative syntax is the standard syntax. Thus the list \isa{Cons True
+(Cons False Nil)} becomes \isa{True \# False \# []}. The annotation
+\isacommand{infixr}\indexbold{*infixr} means that \isa{\#} associates to
+the right, i.e.\ the term \isa{$x$ \# $y$ \# $z$} is read as \isa{$x$
+\# ($y$ \# $z$)} and not as \isa{($x$ \# $y$) \# $z$}.
+
+\begin{warn}
+  Syntax annotations are a powerful but completely optional feature. You
+  could drop them from theory \texttt{ToyList} and go back to the identifiers
+  \isa{Nil} and \isa{Cons}. However, lists are such a central datatype
+  that their syntax is highly customized. We recommend that novices should
+  not use syntax annotations in their own theories.
+\end{warn}
+Next, two functions \isa{app} and \isaindexbold{rev} are declared:%
+\end{isamarkuptext}%
+\isacommand{consts}~app~::~{"}'a~list~{\isasymRightarrow}~'a~list~{\isasymRightarrow}~'a~list{"}~~~(\isakeyword{infixr}~{"}@{"}~65)\isanewline
+~~~~~~~rev~::~{"}'a~list~{\isasymRightarrow}~'a~list{"}%
+\begin{isamarkuptext}%
+\noindent
+In contrast to ML, Isabelle insists on explicit declarations of all functions
+(keyword \isacommand{consts}).  (Apart from the declaration-before-use
+restriction, the order of items in a theory file is unconstrained.) Function
+\isa{app} is annotated with concrete syntax too. Instead of the prefix
+syntax \isa{app~$xs$~$ys$} the infix
+\isa{$xs$~\at~$ys$}\index{$HOL2list@\texttt{\at}|bold} becomes the preferred
+form. Both functions are defined recursively:%
+\end{isamarkuptext}%
+\isacommand{primrec}\isanewline
+{"}[]~@~ys~~~~~~~=~ys{"}\isanewline
+{"}(x~\#~xs)~@~ys~=~x~\#~(xs~@~ys){"}\isanewline
+\isanewline
+\isacommand{primrec}\isanewline
+{"}rev~[]~~~~~~~~=~[]{"}\isanewline
+{"}rev~(x~\#~xs)~~=~(rev~xs)~@~(x~\#~[]){"}%
+\begin{isamarkuptext}%
+\noindent
+The equations for \isa{app} and \isa{rev} hardly need comments:
+\isa{app} appends two lists and \isa{rev} reverses a list.  The keyword
+\isacommand{primrec}\index{*primrec} indicates that the recursion is of a
+particularly primitive kind where each recursive call peels off a datatype
+constructor from one of the arguments (see \S\ref{sec:datatype}).  Thus the
+recursion always terminates, i.e.\ the function is \bfindex{total}.
+
+The termination requirement is absolutely essential in HOL, a logic of total
+functions. If we were to drop it, inconsistencies would quickly arise: the
+``definition'' $f(n) = f(n)+1$ immediately leads to $0 = 1$ by subtracting
+$f(n)$ on both sides.
+% However, this is a subtle issue that we cannot discuss here further.
+
+\begin{warn}
+  As we have indicated, the desire for total functions is not a gratuitously
+  imposed restriction but an essential characteristic of HOL. It is only
+  because of totality that reasoning in HOL is comparatively easy.  More
+  generally, the philosophy in HOL is not to allow arbitrary axioms (such as
+  function definitions whose totality has not been proved) because they
+  quickly lead to inconsistencies. Instead, fixed constructs for introducing
+  types and functions are offered (such as \isacommand{datatype} and
+  \isacommand{primrec}) which are guaranteed to preserve consistency.
+\end{warn}
+
+A remark about syntax.  The textual definition of a theory follows a fixed
+syntax with keywords like \isacommand{datatype} and \isacommand{end} (see
+Fig.~\ref{fig:keywords} in Appendix~\ref{sec:Appendix} for a full list).
+Embedded in this syntax are the types and formulae of HOL, whose syntax is
+extensible, e.g.\ by new user-defined infix operators
+(see~\ref{sec:infix-syntax}). To distinguish the two levels, everything
+HOL-specific (terms and types) should be enclosed in
+\texttt{"}\dots\texttt{"}. 
+To lessen this burden, quotation marks around a single identifier can be
+dropped, unless the identifier happens to be a keyword, as in%
+\end{isamarkuptext}%
+\isacommand{consts}~{"}end{"}~::~{"}'a~list~{\isasymRightarrow}~'a{"}%
+\begin{isamarkuptext}%
+\noindent
+When Isabelle prints a syntax error message, it refers to the HOL syntax as
+the \bfindex{inner syntax}.
+
+
+\section{An introductory proof}
+\label{sec:intro-proof}
+
+Assuming you have input the declarations and definitions of \texttt{ToyList}
+presented so far, we are ready to prove a few simple theorems. This will
+illustrate not just the basic proof commands but also the typical proof
+process.
+
+\subsubsection*{Main goal: \texttt{rev(rev xs) = xs}}
+
+Our goal is to show that reversing a list twice produces the original
+list. The input line%
+\end{isamarkuptext}%
+\isacommand{theorem}~rev\_rev~[simp]:~{"}rev(rev~xs)~=~xs{"}%
+\begin{isamarkuptxt}%
+\noindent\index{*theorem|bold}\index{*simp (attribute)|bold}
+\begin{itemize}
+\item
+establishes a new theorem to be proved, namely \isa{rev(rev xs) = xs},
+\item
+gives that theorem the name \isa{rev_rev} by which it can be referred to,
+\item
+and tells Isabelle (via \isa{[simp]}) to use the theorem (once it has been
+proved) as a simplification rule, i.e.\ all future proofs involving
+simplification will replace occurrences of \isa{rev(rev xs)} by
+\isa{xs}.
+
+The name and the simplification attribute are optional.
+\end{itemize}
+Isabelle's response is to print
+\begin{isabellepar}%
+proof(prove):~step~0\isanewline
+\isanewline
+goal~(theorem~rev\_rev):\isanewline
+rev~(rev~xs)~=~xs\isanewline
+~1.~rev~(rev~xs)~=~xs
+\end{isabellepar}%
+The first three lines tell us that we are 0 steps into the proof of
+theorem \isa{rev_rev}; for compactness reasons we rarely show these
+initial lines in this tutorial. The remaining lines display the current
+proof state.
+Until we have finished a proof, the proof state always looks like this:
+\begin{isabellepar}%
+$G$\isanewline
+~1.~$G\sb{1}$\isanewline
+~~\vdots~~\isanewline
+~$n$.~$G\sb{n}$
+\end{isabellepar}%
+where $G$
+is the overall goal that we are trying to prove, and the numbered lines
+contain the subgoals $G\sb{1}$, \dots, $G\sb{n}$ that we need to prove to
+establish $G$. At \isa{step 0} there is only one subgoal, which is
+identical with the overall goal.  Normally $G$ is constant and only serves as
+a reminder. Hence we rarely show it in this tutorial.
+
+Let us now get back to \isa{rev(rev xs) = xs}. Properties of recursively
+defined functions are best established by induction. In this case there is
+not much choice except to induct on \isa{xs}:%
+\end{isamarkuptxt}%
+\isacommand{apply}(induct\_tac~xs)%
+\begin{isamarkuptxt}%
+\noindent\index{*induct_tac}%
+This tells Isabelle to perform induction on variable \isa{xs}. The suffix
+\isa{tac} stands for ``tactic'', a synonym for ``theorem proving function''.
+By default, induction acts on the first subgoal. The new proof state contains
+two subgoals, namely the base case (\isa{Nil}) and the induction step
+(\isa{Cons}):
+\begin{isabellepar}%
+~1.~rev~(rev~[])~=~[]\isanewline
+~2.~{\isasymAnd}a~list.~rev(rev~list)~=~list~{\isasymLongrightarrow}~rev(rev(a~\#~list))~=~a~\#~list%
+\end{isabellepar}%
+
+The induction step is an example of the general format of a subgoal:
+\begin{isabellepar}%
+~$i$.~{\indexboldpos{\isasymAnd}{$IsaAnd}}$x\sb{1}$~\dots~$x\sb{n}$.~{\it assumptions}~{\isasymLongrightarrow}~{\it conclusion}
+\end{isabellepar}%
+The prefix of bound variables \isasymAnd$x\sb{1}$~\dots~$x\sb{n}$ can be
+ignored most of the time, or simply treated as a list of variables local to
+this subgoal. Their deeper significance is explained in \S\ref{sec:PCproofs}.
+The {\it assumptions} are the local assumptions for this subgoal and {\it
+  conclusion} is the actual proposition to be proved. Typical proof steps
+that add new assumptions are induction or case distinction. In our example
+the only assumption is the induction hypothesis \isa{rev (rev list) =
+  list}, where \isa{list} is a variable name chosen by Isabelle. If there
+are multiple assumptions, they are enclosed in the bracket pair
+\indexboldpos{\isasymlbrakk}{$Isabrl} and
+\indexboldpos{\isasymrbrakk}{$Isabrr} and separated by semicolons.
+
+%FIXME indent!
+Let us try to solve both goals automatically:%
+\end{isamarkuptxt}%
+\isacommand{apply}(auto)%
+\begin{isamarkuptxt}%
+\noindent
+This command tells Isabelle to apply a proof strategy called
+\isa{auto} to all subgoals. Essentially, \isa{auto} tries to
+``simplify'' the subgoals.  In our case, subgoal~1 is solved completely (thanks
+to the equation \isa{rev [] = []}) and disappears; the simplified version
+of subgoal~2 becomes the new subgoal~1:
+\begin{isabellepar}%
+~1.~\dots~rev(rev~list)~=~list~{\isasymLongrightarrow}~rev(rev~list~@~a~\#~[])~=~a~\#~list
+\end{isabellepar}%
+In order to simplify this subgoal further, a lemma suggests itself.%
+\end{isamarkuptxt}%
+%
+\begin{isamarkuptext}%
+\subsubsection*{First lemma: \texttt{rev(xs \at~ys) = (rev ys) \at~(rev xs)}}
+
+After abandoning the above proof attempt (at the shell level type
+\isa{oops}) we start a new proof:%
+\end{isamarkuptext}%
+\isacommand{lemma}~rev\_app~[simp]:~{"}rev(xs~@~ys)~=~(rev~ys)~@~(rev~xs){"}%
+\begin{isamarkuptxt}%
+\noindent The keywords \isacommand{theorem}\index{*theorem} and
+\isacommand{lemma}\indexbold{*lemma} are interchangable and merely indicate
+the importance we attach to a proposition. In general, we use the words
+\emph{theorem}\index{theorem} and \emph{lemma}\index{lemma} pretty much
+interchangeably.
+
+%FIXME indent!
+There are two variables that we could induct on: \isa{xs} and
+\isa{ys}. Because \isa{\at} is defined by recursion on
+the first argument, \isa{xs} is the correct one:%
+\end{isamarkuptxt}%
+\isacommand{apply}(induct\_tac~xs)%
+\begin{isamarkuptxt}%
+\noindent
+This time not even the base case is solved automatically:%
+\end{isamarkuptxt}%
+\isacommand{apply}(auto)%
+\begin{isamarkuptxt}%
+\begin{isabellepar}%
+~1.~rev~ys~=~rev~ys~@~[]\isanewline
+~2. \dots
+\end{isabellepar}%
+We need to cancel this proof attempt and prove another simple lemma first.
+In the future the step of cancelling an incomplete proof before embarking on
+the proof of a lemma often remains implicit.%
+\end{isamarkuptxt}%
+%
+\begin{isamarkuptext}%
+\subsubsection*{Second lemma: \texttt{xs \at~[] = xs}}
+
+This time the canonical proof procedure%
+\end{isamarkuptext}%
+\isacommand{lemma}~app\_Nil2~[simp]:~{"}xs~@~[]~=~xs{"}\isanewline
+\isacommand{apply}(induct\_tac~xs)\isanewline
+\isacommand{apply}(auto)%
+\begin{isamarkuptxt}%
+\noindent
+leads to the desired message \isa{No subgoals!}:
+\begin{isabellepar}%
+xs~@~[]~=~xs\isanewline
+No~subgoals!
+\end{isabellepar}%
+
+We still need to confirm that the proof is now finished:%
+\end{isamarkuptxt}%
+\isacommand{.}%
+\begin{isamarkuptext}%
+\noindent\indexbold{$Isar@\texttt{.}}%
+As a result of that final dot, Isabelle associates the lemma
+just proved with its name. Notice that in the lemma \isa{app_Nil2} (as
+printed out after the final dot) the free variable \isa{xs} has been
+replaced by the unknown \isa{?xs}, just as explained in
+\S\ref{sec:variables}.
+
+Going back to the proof of the first lemma%
+\end{isamarkuptext}%
+\isacommand{lemma}~rev\_app~[simp]:~{"}rev(xs~@~ys)~=~(rev~ys)~@~(rev~xs){"}\isanewline
+\isacommand{apply}(induct\_tac~xs)\isanewline
+\isacommand{apply}(auto)%
+\begin{isamarkuptxt}%
+\noindent
+we find that this time \isa{auto} solves the base case, but the
+induction step merely simplifies to
+\begin{isabellepar}
+~1.~{\isasymAnd}a~list.\isanewline
+~~~~~~~rev~(list~@~ys)~=~rev~ys~@~rev~list~{\isasymLongrightarrow}\isanewline
+~~~~~~~(rev~ys~@~rev~list)~@~a~\#~[]~=~rev~ys~@~rev~list~@~a~\#~[]
+\end{isabellepar}%
+Now we need to remember that \isa{\at} associates to the right, and that
+\isa{\#} and \isa{\at} have the same priority (namely the \isa{65}
+in their \isacommand{infixr} annotation). Thus the conclusion really is
+\begin{isabellepar}%
+~~~~~(rev~ys~@~rev~list)~@~(a~\#~[])~=~rev~ys~@~(rev~list~@~(a~\#~[]))%
+\end{isabellepar}%
+and the missing lemma is associativity of \isa{\at}.
+
+\subsubsection*{Third lemma: \texttt{(xs \at~ys) \at~zs = xs \at~(ys \at~zs)}}
+
+Abandoning the previous proof, the canonical proof procedure%
+\end{isamarkuptxt}%
+%
+\begin{comment}
+\isacommand{oops}%
+\end{comment}
+\isacommand{lemma}~app\_assoc~[simp]:~{"}(xs~@~ys)~@~zs~=~xs~@~(ys~@~zs){"}\isanewline
+\isacommand{apply}(induct\_tac~xs)\isanewline
+\isacommand{apply}(auto)\isacommand{.}%
+\begin{isamarkuptext}%
+\noindent
+succeeds without further ado.
+
+Now we can go back and prove the first lemma%
+\end{isamarkuptext}%
+\isacommand{lemma}~rev\_app~[simp]:~{"}rev(xs~@~ys)~=~(rev~ys)~@~(rev~xs){"}\isanewline
+\isacommand{apply}(induct\_tac~xs)\isanewline
+\isacommand{apply}(auto)\isacommand{.}%
+\begin{isamarkuptext}%
+\noindent
+and then solve our main theorem:%
+\end{isamarkuptext}%
+\isacommand{theorem}~rev\_rev~[simp]:~{"}rev(rev~xs)~=~xs{"}\isanewline
+\isacommand{apply}(induct\_tac~xs)\isanewline
+\isacommand{apply}(auto)\isacommand{.}%
+\begin{isamarkuptext}%
+\noindent
+The final \isa{end} tells Isabelle to close the current theory because
+we are finished with its development:%
+\end{isamarkuptext}%
+\isacommand{end}\isanewline
+\end{isabelle}%




