diff -r d2c6f15f38f4 -r 78fa85d44e68 doc-src/Inductive/ind-defs.tex --- /dev/null Thu Jan 01 00:00:00 1970 +0000 +++ b/doc-src/Inductive/ind-defs.tex Mon May 12 17:13:12 1997 +0200 @@ -0,0 +1,1600 @@ +\documentclass[12pt]{article} +\usepackage{a4,latexsym,proof} + +\makeatletter +\input{../rail.sty} +\input{../iman.sty} +\input{../extra.sty} +\makeatother + +\newif\ifshort%''Short'' means a published version, not the documentation +\shortfalse%%%%%\shorttrue + +\title{A Fixedpoint Approach to\\ + (Co)Inductive and (Co)Datatype Definitions% + \thanks{J. Grundy and S. Thompson made detailed comments. Mads Tofte and + the referees were also helpful. The research was funded by the SERC + grants GR/G53279, GR/H40570 and by the ESPRIT Project 6453 ``Types''.}} + +\author{Lawrence C. Paulson\\{\tt lcp@cl.cam.ac.uk}\\ + Computer Laboratory, University of Cambridge, England} +\date{\today} +\setcounter{secnumdepth}{2} \setcounter{tocdepth}{2} + +\newcommand\sbs{\subseteq} +\let\To=\Rightarrow + +%\newcommand\emph[1]{{\em#1\/}} +\newcommand\defn[1]{{\bf#1}} +%\newcommand\textsc[1]{{\sc#1}} +%\newcommand\texttt[1]{{\tt#1}} + +\newcommand\pow{{\cal P}} +%%%\let\pow=\wp +\newcommand\RepFun{\hbox{\tt RepFun}} +\newcommand\cons{\hbox{\tt cons}} +\def\succ{\hbox{\tt succ}} +\newcommand\split{\hbox{\tt split}} +\newcommand\fst{\hbox{\tt fst}} +\newcommand\snd{\hbox{\tt snd}} +\newcommand\converse{\hbox{\tt converse}} +\newcommand\domain{\hbox{\tt domain}} +\newcommand\range{\hbox{\tt range}} +\newcommand\field{\hbox{\tt field}} +\newcommand\lfp{\hbox{\tt lfp}} +\newcommand\gfp{\hbox{\tt gfp}} +\newcommand\id{\hbox{\tt id}} +\newcommand\trans{\hbox{\tt trans}} +\newcommand\wf{\hbox{\tt wf}} +\newcommand\nat{\hbox{\tt nat}} +\newcommand\rank{\hbox{\tt rank}} +\newcommand\univ{\hbox{\tt univ}} +\newcommand\Vrec{\hbox{\tt Vrec}} +\newcommand\Inl{\hbox{\tt Inl}} +\newcommand\Inr{\hbox{\tt Inr}} +\newcommand\case{\hbox{\tt case}} +\newcommand\lst{\hbox{\tt list}} +\newcommand\Nil{\hbox{\tt Nil}} +\newcommand\Cons{\hbox{\tt Cons}} +\newcommand\lstcase{\hbox{\tt list\_case}} +\newcommand\lstrec{\hbox{\tt list\_rec}} +\newcommand\length{\hbox{\tt length}} +\newcommand\listn{\hbox{\tt listn}} +\newcommand\acc{\hbox{\tt acc}} +\newcommand\primrec{\hbox{\tt primrec}} +\newcommand\SC{\hbox{\tt SC}} +\newcommand\CONST{\hbox{\tt CONST}} +\newcommand\PROJ{\hbox{\tt PROJ}} +\newcommand\COMP{\hbox{\tt COMP}} +\newcommand\PREC{\hbox{\tt PREC}} + +\newcommand\quniv{\hbox{\tt quniv}} +\newcommand\llist{\hbox{\tt llist}} +\newcommand\LNil{\hbox{\tt LNil}} +\newcommand\LCons{\hbox{\tt LCons}} +\newcommand\lconst{\hbox{\tt lconst}} +\newcommand\lleq{\hbox{\tt lleq}} +\newcommand\map{\hbox{\tt map}} +\newcommand\term{\hbox{\tt term}} +\newcommand\Apply{\hbox{\tt Apply}} +\newcommand\termcase{\hbox{\tt term\_case}} +\newcommand\rev{\hbox{\tt rev}} +\newcommand\reflect{\hbox{\tt reflect}} +\newcommand\tree{\hbox{\tt tree}} +\newcommand\forest{\hbox{\tt forest}} +\newcommand\Part{\hbox{\tt Part}} +\newcommand\TF{\hbox{\tt tree\_forest}} +\newcommand\Tcons{\hbox{\tt Tcons}} +\newcommand\Fcons{\hbox{\tt Fcons}} +\newcommand\Fnil{\hbox{\tt Fnil}} +\newcommand\TFcase{\hbox{\tt TF\_case}} +\newcommand\Fin{\hbox{\tt Fin}} +\newcommand\QInl{\hbox{\tt QInl}} +\newcommand\QInr{\hbox{\tt QInr}} +\newcommand\qsplit{\hbox{\tt qsplit}} +\newcommand\qcase{\hbox{\tt qcase}} +\newcommand\Con{\hbox{\tt Con}} +\newcommand\data{\hbox{\tt data}} + +\binperiod %%%treat . like a binary operator + +\begin{document} +\pagestyle{empty} +\begin{titlepage} +\maketitle +\begin{abstract} + This paper presents a fixedpoint approach to inductive definitions. + Instead of using a syntactic test such as ``strictly positive,'' the + approach lets definitions involve any operators that have been proved + monotone. It is conceptually simple, which has allowed the easy + implementation of mutual recursion and iterated definitions. It also + handles coinductive definitions: simply replace the least fixedpoint by a + greatest fixedpoint. + + The method has been implemented in two of Isabelle's logics, \textsc{zf} set + theory and higher-order logic. It should be applicable to any logic in + which the Knaster-Tarski theorem can be proved. Examples include lists of + $n$ elements, the accessible part of a relation and the set of primitive + recursive functions. One example of a coinductive definition is + bisimulations for lazy lists. Recursive datatypes are examined in detail, + as well as one example of a \defn{codatatype}: lazy lists. + + The Isabelle package has been applied in several large case studies, + including two proofs of the Church-Rosser theorem and a coinductive proof of + semantic consistency. The package can be trusted because it proves theorems + from definitions, instead of asserting desired properties as axioms. +\end{abstract} +% +\bigskip +\centerline{Copyright \copyright{} \number\year{} by Lawrence C. Paulson} +\thispagestyle{empty} +\end{titlepage} +\tableofcontents\cleardoublepage\pagestyle{plain} + +\setcounter{page}{1} + +\section{Introduction} +Several theorem provers provide commands for formalizing recursive data +structures, like lists and trees. Robin Milner implemented one of the first +of these, for Edinburgh \textsc{lcf}~\cite{milner-ind}. Given a description +of the desired data structure, Milner's package formulated appropriate +definitions and proved the characteristic theorems. Similar is Melham's +recursive type package for the Cambridge \textsc{hol} system~\cite{melham89}. +Such data structures are called \defn{datatypes} +below, by analogy with datatype declarations in Standard~\textsc{ml}\@. +Some logics take datatypes as primitive; consider Boyer and Moore's shell +principle~\cite{bm79} and the Coq type theory~\cite{paulin-tlca}. + +A datatype is but one example of an \defn{inductive definition}. Such a +definition~\cite{aczel77} specifies the least set~$R$ \defn{closed under} +given rules: applying a rule to elements of~$R$ yields a result within~$R$. +Inductive definitions have many applications. The collection of theorems in a +logic is inductively defined. A structural operational +semantics~\cite{hennessy90} is an inductive definition of a reduction or +evaluation relation on programs. A few theorem provers provide commands for +formalizing inductive definitions; these include Coq~\cite{paulin-tlca} and +again the \textsc{hol} system~\cite{camilleri92}. + +The dual notion is that of a \defn{coinductive definition}. Such a definition +specifies the greatest set~$R$ \defn{consistent with} given rules: every +element of~$R$ can be seen as arising by applying a rule to elements of~$R$. +Important examples include using bisimulation relations to formalize +equivalence of processes~\cite{milner89} or lazy functional +programs~\cite{abramsky90}. Other examples include lazy lists and other +infinite data structures; these are called \defn{codatatypes} below. + +Not all inductive definitions are meaningful. \defn{Monotone} inductive +definitions are a large, well-behaved class. Monotonicity can be enforced +by syntactic conditions such as ``strictly positive,'' but this could lead to +monotone definitions being rejected on the grounds of their syntactic form. +More flexible is to formalize monotonicity within the logic and allow users +to prove it. + +This paper describes a package based on a fixedpoint approach. Least +fixedpoints yield inductive definitions; greatest fixedpoints yield +coinductive definitions. Most of the discussion below applies equally to +inductive and coinductive definitions, and most of the code is shared. + +The package supports mutual recursion and infinitely-branching datatypes and +codatatypes. It allows use of any operators that have been proved monotone, +thus accepting all provably monotone inductive definitions, including +iterated definitions. + +The package has been implemented in +Isabelle~\cite{paulson-markt,paulson-isa-book} using +\textsc{zf} set theory \cite{paulson-set-I,paulson-set-II}; part of it has +since been ported to Isabelle/\textsc{hol} (higher-order logic). The +recursion equations are specified as introduction rules for the mutually +recursive sets. The package transforms these rules into a mapping over sets, +and attempts to prove that the mapping is monotonic and well-typed. If +successful, the package makes fixedpoint definitions and proves the +introduction, elimination and (co)induction rules. Users invoke the package +by making simple declarations in Isabelle theory files. + +Most datatype packages equip the new datatype with some means of expressing +recursive functions. This is the main omission from my package. Its +fixedpoint operators define only recursive sets. The Isabelle/\textsc{zf} +theory provides well-founded recursion~\cite{paulson-set-II}, which is harder +to use than structural recursion but considerably more general. +Slind~\cite{slind-tfl} has written a package to automate the definition of +well-founded recursive functions in Isabelle/\textsc{hol}. + +\paragraph*{Outline.} Section~2 introduces the least and greatest fixedpoint +operators. Section~3 discusses the form of introduction rules, mutual +recursion and other points common to inductive and coinductive definitions. +Section~4 discusses induction and coinduction rules separately. Section~5 +presents several examples, including a coinductive definition. Section~6 +describes datatype definitions. Section~7 presents related work. +Section~8 draws brief conclusions. \ifshort\else The appendices are simple +user's manuals for this Isabelle package.\fi + +Most of the definitions and theorems shown below have been generated by the +package. I have renamed some variables to improve readability. + +\section{Fixedpoint operators} +In set theory, the least and greatest fixedpoint operators are defined as +follows: +\begin{eqnarray*} + \lfp(D,h) & \equiv & \inter\{X\sbs D. h(X)\sbs X\} \\ + \gfp(D,h) & \equiv & \union\{X\sbs D. X\sbs h(X)\} +\end{eqnarray*} +Let $D$ be a set. Say that $h$ is \defn{bounded by}~$D$ if $h(D)\sbs D$, and +\defn{monotone below~$D$} if +$h(A)\sbs h(B)$ for all $A$ and $B$ such that $A\sbs B\sbs D$. If $h$ is +bounded by~$D$ and monotone then both operators yield fixedpoints: +\begin{eqnarray*} + \lfp(D,h) & = & h(\lfp(D,h)) \\ + \gfp(D,h) & = & h(\gfp(D,h)) +\end{eqnarray*} +These equations are instances of the Knaster-Tarski theorem, which states +that every monotonic function over a complete lattice has a +fixedpoint~\cite{davey&priestley}. It is obvious from their definitions +that $\lfp$ must be the least fixedpoint, and $\gfp$ the greatest. + +This fixedpoint theory is simple. The Knaster-Tarski theorem is easy to +prove. Showing monotonicity of~$h$ is trivial, in typical cases. We must +also exhibit a bounding set~$D$ for~$h$. Frequently this is trivial, as when +a set of theorems is (co)inductively defined over some previously existing set +of formul{\ae}. Isabelle/\textsc{zf} provides suitable bounding sets for +infinitely-branching (co)datatype definitions; see~\S\ref{univ-sec}. Bounding +sets are also called \defn{domains}. + +The powerset operator is monotone, but by Cantor's theorem there is no +set~$A$ such that $A=\pow(A)$. We cannot put $A=\lfp(D,\pow)$ because +there is no suitable domain~$D$. But \S\ref{acc-sec} demonstrates +that~$\pow$ is still useful in inductive definitions. + +\section{Elements of an inductive or coinductive definition}\label{basic-sec} +Consider a (co)inductive definition of the sets $R_1$, \ldots,~$R_n$, in +mutual recursion. They will be constructed from domains $D_1$, +\ldots,~$D_n$, respectively. The construction yields not $R_i\sbs D_i$ but +$R_i\sbs D_1+\cdots+D_n$, where $R_i$ is contained in the image of~$D_i$ +under an injection. Reasons for this are discussed +elsewhere~\cite[\S4.5]{paulson-set-II}. + +The definition may involve arbitrary parameters $\vec{p}=p_1$, +\ldots,~$p_k$. Each recursive set then has the form $R_i(\vec{p})$. The +parameters must be identical every time they occur within a definition. This +would appear to be a serious restriction compared with other systems such as +Coq~\cite{paulin-tlca}. For instance, we cannot define the lists of +$n$ elements as the set $\listn(A,n)$ using rules where the parameter~$n$ +varies. Section~\ref{listn-sec} describes how to express this set using the +inductive definition package. + +To avoid clutter below, the recursive sets are shown as simply $R_i$ +instead of~$R_i(\vec{p})$. + +\subsection{The form of the introduction rules}\label{intro-sec} +The body of the definition consists of the desired introduction rules. The +conclusion of each rule must have the form $t\in R_i$, where $t$ is any term. +Premises typically have the same form, but they can have the more general form +$t\in M(R_i)$ or express arbitrary side-conditions. + +The premise $t\in M(R_i)$ is permitted if $M$ is a monotonic operator on +sets, satisfying the rule +\[ \infer{M(A)\sbs M(B)}{A\sbs B} \] +The user must supply the package with monotonicity rules for all such premises. + +The ability to introduce new monotone operators makes the approach +flexible. A suitable choice of~$M$ and~$t$ can express a lot. The +powerset operator $\pow$ is monotone, and the premise $t\in\pow(R)$ +expresses $t\sbs R$; see \S\ref{acc-sec} for an example. The \emph{list of} +operator is monotone, as is easily proved by induction. The premise +$t\in\lst(R)$ avoids having to encode the effect of~$\lst(R)$ using mutual +recursion; see \S\ref{primrec-sec} and also my earlier +paper~\cite[\S4.4]{paulson-set-II}. + +Introduction rules may also contain \defn{side-conditions}. These are +premises consisting of arbitrary formul{\ae} not mentioning the recursive +sets. Side-conditions typically involve type-checking. One example is the +premise $a\in A$ in the following rule from the definition of lists: +\[ \infer{\Cons(a,l)\in\lst(A)}{a\in A & l\in\lst(A)} \] + +\subsection{The fixedpoint definitions} +The package translates the list of desired introduction rules into a fixedpoint +definition. Consider, as a running example, the finite powerset operator +$\Fin(A)$: the set of all finite subsets of~$A$. It can be +defined as the least set closed under the rules +\[ \emptyset\in\Fin(A) \qquad + \infer{\{a\}\un b\in\Fin(A)}{a\in A & b\in\Fin(A)} +\] + +The domain in a (co)inductive definition must be some existing set closed +under the rules. A suitable domain for $\Fin(A)$ is $\pow(A)$, the set of all +subsets of~$A$. The package generates the definition +\[ \Fin(A) \equiv \lfp(\pow(A), \, + \begin{array}[t]{r@{\,}l} + \lambda X. \{z\in\pow(A). & z=\emptyset \disj{} \\ + &(\exists a\,b. z=\{a\}\un b\conj a\in A\conj b\in X)\}) + \end{array} +\] +The contribution of each rule to the definition of $\Fin(A)$ should be +obvious. A coinductive definition is similar but uses $\gfp$ instead +of~$\lfp$. + +The package must prove that the fixedpoint operator is applied to a +monotonic function. If the introduction rules have the form described +above, and if the package is supplied a monotonicity theorem for every +$t\in M(R_i)$ premise, then this proof is trivial.\footnote{Due to the + presence of logical connectives in the fixedpoint's body, the + monotonicity proof requires some unusual rules. These state that the + connectives $\conj$, $\disj$ and $\exists$ preserve monotonicity with respect + to the partial ordering on unary predicates given by $P\sqsubseteq Q$ if and + only if $\forall x.P(x)\imp Q(x)$.} + +The package returns its result as an \textsc{ml} structure, which consists of named +components; we may regard it as a record. The result structure contains +the definitions of the recursive sets as a theorem list called {\tt defs}. +It also contains some theorems; {\tt dom\_subset} is an inclusion such as +$\Fin(A)\sbs\pow(A)$, while {\tt bnd\_mono} asserts that the fixedpoint +definition is monotonic. + +Internally the package uses the theorem {\tt unfold}, a fixedpoint equation +such as +\[ + \begin{array}[t]{r@{\,}l} + \Fin(A) = \{z\in\pow(A). & z=\emptyset \disj{} \\ + &(\exists a\,b. z=\{a\}\un b\conj a\in A\conj b\in \Fin(A))\} + \end{array} +\] +In order to save space, this theorem is not exported. + + +\subsection{Mutual recursion} \label{mutual-sec} +In a mutually recursive definition, the domain of the fixedpoint construction +is the disjoint sum of the domain~$D_i$ of each~$R_i$, for $i=1$, +\ldots,~$n$. The package uses the injections of the +binary disjoint sum, typically $\Inl$ and~$\Inr$, to express injections +$h_{1n}$, \ldots, $h_{nn}$ for the $n$-ary disjoint sum $D_1+\cdots+D_n$. + +As discussed elsewhere \cite[\S4.5]{paulson-set-II}, Isabelle/\textsc{zf} defines the +operator $\Part$ to support mutual recursion. The set $\Part(A,h)$ +contains those elements of~$A$ having the form~$h(z)$: +\[ \Part(A,h) \equiv \{x\in A. \exists z. x=h(z)\}. \] +For mutually recursive sets $R_1$, \ldots,~$R_n$ with +$n>1$, the package makes $n+1$ definitions. The first defines a set $R$ using +a fixedpoint operator. The remaining $n$ definitions have the form +\[ R_i \equiv \Part(R,h_{in}), \qquad i=1,\ldots, n. \] +It follows that $R=R_1\un\cdots\un R_n$, where the $R_i$ are pairwise disjoint. + + +\subsection{Proving the introduction rules} +The user supplies the package with the desired form of the introduction +rules. Once it has derived the theorem {\tt unfold}, it attempts +to prove those rules. From the user's point of view, this is the +trickiest stage; the proofs often fail. The task is to show that the domain +$D_1+\cdots+D_n$ of the combined set $R_1\un\cdots\un R_n$ is +closed under all the introduction rules. This essentially involves replacing +each~$R_i$ by $D_1+\cdots+D_n$ in each of the introduction rules and +attempting to prove the result. + +Consider the $\Fin(A)$ example. After substituting $\pow(A)$ for $\Fin(A)$ +in the rules, the package must prove +\[ \emptyset\in\pow(A) \qquad + \infer{\{a\}\un b\in\pow(A)}{a\in A & b\in\pow(A)} +\] +Such proofs can be regarded as type-checking the definition.\footnote{The + Isabelle/\textsc{hol} version does not require these proofs, as \textsc{hol} + has implicit type-checking.} The user supplies the package with +type-checking rules to apply. Usually these are general purpose rules from +the \textsc{zf} theory. They could however be rules specifically proved for a +particular inductive definition; sometimes this is the easiest way to get the +definition through! + +The result structure contains the introduction rules as the theorem list {\tt +intrs}. + +\subsection{The case analysis rule} +The elimination rule, called {\tt elim}, performs case analysis. It is a +simple consequence of {\tt unfold}. There is one case for each introduction +rule. If $x\in\Fin(A)$ then either $x=\emptyset$ or else $x=\{a\}\un b$ for +some $a\in A$ and $b\in\Fin(A)$. Formally, the elimination rule for $\Fin(A)$ +is written +\[ \infer{Q}{x\in\Fin(A) & \infer*{Q}{[x=\emptyset]} + & \infer*{Q}{[x=\{a\}\un b & a\in A &b\in\Fin(A)]_{a,b}} } +\] +The subscripted variables $a$ and~$b$ above the third premise are +eigenvariables, subject to the usual ``not free in \ldots'' proviso. + + +\section{Induction and coinduction rules} +Here we must consider inductive and coinductive definitions separately. For +an inductive definition, the package returns an induction rule derived +directly from the properties of least fixedpoints, as well as a modified rule +for mutual recursion. For a coinductive definition, the package returns a +basic coinduction rule. + +\subsection{The basic induction rule}\label{basic-ind-sec} +The basic rule, called {\tt induct}, is appropriate in most situations. +For inductive definitions, it is strong rule induction~\cite{camilleri92}; for +datatype definitions (see below), it is just structural induction. + +The induction rule for an inductively defined set~$R$ has the form described +below. For the time being, assume that $R$'s domain is not a Cartesian +product; inductively defined relations are treated slightly differently. + +The major premise is $x\in R$. There is a minor premise for each +introduction rule: +\begin{itemize} +\item If the introduction rule concludes $t\in R_i$, then the minor premise +is~$P(t)$. + +\item The minor premise's eigenvariables are precisely the introduction +rule's free variables that are not parameters of~$R$. For instance, the +eigenvariables in the $\Fin(A)$ rule below are $a$ and $b$, but not~$A$. + +\item If the introduction rule has a premise $t\in R_i$, then the minor +premise discharges the assumption $t\in R_i$ and the induction +hypothesis~$P(t)$. If the introduction rule has a premise $t\in M(R_i)$ +then the minor premise discharges the single assumption +\[ t\in M(\{z\in R_i. P(z)\}). \] +Because $M$ is monotonic, this assumption implies $t\in M(R_i)$. The +occurrence of $P$ gives the effect of an induction hypothesis, which may be +exploited by appealing to properties of~$M$. +\end{itemize} +The induction rule for $\Fin(A)$ resembles the elimination rule shown above, +but includes an induction hypothesis: +\[ \infer{P(x)}{x\in\Fin(A) & P(\emptyset) + & \infer*{P(\{a\}\un b)}{[a\in A & b\in\Fin(A) & P(b)]_{a,b}} } +\] +Stronger induction rules often suggest themselves. We can derive a rule for +$\Fin(A)$ whose third premise discharges the extra assumption $a\not\in b$. +The package provides rules for mutual induction and inductive relations. The +Isabelle/\textsc{zf} theory also supports well-founded induction and recursion +over datatypes, by reasoning about the \defn{rank} of a +set~\cite[\S3.4]{paulson-set-II}. + + +\subsection{Modified induction rules} + +If the domain of $R$ is a Cartesian product $A_1\times\cdots\times A_m$ +(however nested), then the corresponding predicate $P_i$ takes $m$ arguments. +The major premise becomes $\pair{z_1,\ldots,z_m}\in R$ instead of $x\in R$; +the conclusion becomes $P(z_1,\ldots,z_m)$. This simplifies reasoning about +inductively defined relations, eliminating the need to express properties of +$z_1$, \ldots,~$z_m$ as properties of the tuple $\pair{z_1,\ldots,z_m}$. +Occasionally it may require you to split up the induction variable +using {\tt SigmaE} and {\tt dom\_subset}, especially if the constant {\tt + split} appears in the rule. + +The mutual induction rule is called {\tt +mutual\_induct}. It differs from the basic rule in two respects: +\begin{itemize} +\item Instead of a single predicate~$P$, it uses $n$ predicates $P_1$, +\ldots,~$P_n$: one for each recursive set. + +\item There is no major premise such as $x\in R_i$. Instead, the conclusion +refers to all the recursive sets: +\[ (\forall z.z\in R_1\imp P_1(z))\conj\cdots\conj + (\forall z.z\in R_n\imp P_n(z)) +\] +Proving the premises establishes $P_i(z)$ for $z\in R_i$ and $i=1$, +\ldots,~$n$. +\end{itemize} +% +If the domain of some $R_i$ is a Cartesian product, then the mutual induction +rule is modified accordingly. The predicates are made to take $m$ separate +arguments instead of a tuple, and the quantification in the conclusion is over +the separate variables $z_1$, \ldots, $z_m$. + +\subsection{Coinduction}\label{coind-sec} +A coinductive definition yields a primitive coinduction rule, with no +refinements such as those for the induction rules. (Experience may suggest +refinements later.) Consider the codatatype of lazy lists as an example. For +suitable definitions of $\LNil$ and $\LCons$, lazy lists may be defined as the +greatest set consistent with the rules +\[ \LNil\in\llist(A) \qquad + \infer[(-)]{\LCons(a,l)\in\llist(A)}{a\in A & l\in\llist(A)} +\] +The $(-)$ tag stresses that this is a coinductive definition. A suitable +domain for $\llist(A)$ is $\quniv(A)$; this set is closed under the variant +forms of sum and product that are used to represent non-well-founded data +structures (see~\S\ref{univ-sec}). + +The package derives an {\tt unfold} theorem similar to that for $\Fin(A)$. +Then it proves the theorem {\tt coinduct}, which expresses that $\llist(A)$ +is the greatest solution to this equation contained in $\quniv(A)$: +\[ \infer{x\in\llist(A)}{x\in X & X\sbs \quniv(A) & + \infer*{ + \begin{array}[b]{r@{}l} + z=\LNil\disj + \bigl(\exists a\,l.\, & z=\LCons(a,l) \conj a\in A \conj{}\\ + & l\in X\un\llist(A) \bigr) + \end{array} }{[z\in X]_z}} +\] +This rule complements the introduction rules; it provides a means of showing +$x\in\llist(A)$ when $x$ is infinite. For instance, if $x=\LCons(0,x)$ then +applying the rule with $X=\{x\}$ proves $x\in\llist(\nat)$. (Here $\nat$ +is the set of natural numbers.) + +Having $X\un\llist(A)$ instead of simply $X$ in the third premise above +represents a slight strengthening of the greatest fixedpoint property. I +discuss several forms of coinduction rules elsewhere~\cite{paulson-coind}. + +The clumsy form of the third premise makes the rule hard to use, especially in +large definitions. Probably a constant should be declared to abbreviate the +large disjunction, and rules derived to allow proving the separate disjuncts. + + +\section{Examples of inductive and coinductive definitions}\label{ind-eg-sec} +This section presents several examples from the literature: the finite +powerset operator, lists of $n$ elements, bisimulations on lazy lists, the +well-founded part of a relation, and the primitive recursive functions. + +\subsection{The finite powerset operator} +This operator has been discussed extensively above. Here is the +corresponding invocation in an Isabelle theory file. Note that +$\cons(a,b)$ abbreviates $\{a\}\un b$ in Isabelle/\textsc{zf}. +\begin{ttbox} +Finite = Arith + +consts Fin :: i=>i +inductive + domains "Fin(A)" <= "Pow(A)" + intrs + emptyI "0 : Fin(A)" + consI "[| a: A; b: Fin(A) |] ==> cons(a,b) : Fin(A)" + type_intrs "[empty_subsetI, cons_subsetI, PowI]" + type_elims "[make_elim PowD]" +end +\end{ttbox} +Theory {\tt Finite} extends the parent theory {\tt Arith} by declaring the +unary function symbol~$\Fin$, which is defined inductively. Its domain is +specified as $\pow(A)$, where $A$ is the parameter appearing in the +introduction rules. For type-checking, we supply two introduction +rules: +\[ \emptyset\sbs A \qquad + \infer{\{a\}\un B\sbs C}{a\in C & B\sbs C} +\] +A further introduction rule and an elimination rule express both +directions of the equivalence $A\in\pow(B)\bimp A\sbs B$. Type-checking +involves mostly introduction rules. + +Like all Isabelle theory files, this one yields a structure containing the +new theory as an \textsc{ml} value. Structure {\tt Finite} also has a +substructure, called~{\tt Fin}. After declaring \hbox{\tt open Finite;} we +can refer to the $\Fin(A)$ introduction rules as the list {\tt Fin.intrs} +or individually as {\tt Fin.emptyI} and {\tt Fin.consI}. The induction +rule is {\tt Fin.induct}. + + +\subsection{Lists of $n$ elements}\label{listn-sec} +This has become a standard example of an inductive definition. Following +Paulin-Mohring~\cite{paulin-tlca}, we could attempt to define a new datatype +$\listn(A,n)$, for lists of length~$n$, as an $n$-indexed family of sets. +But her introduction rules +\[ \hbox{\tt Niln}\in\listn(A,0) \qquad + \infer{\hbox{\tt Consn}(n,a,l)\in\listn(A,\succ(n))} + {n\in\nat & a\in A & l\in\listn(A,n)} +\] +are not acceptable to the inductive definition package: +$\listn$ occurs with three different parameter lists in the definition. + +The Isabelle version of this example suggests a general treatment of +varying parameters. It uses the existing datatype definition of +$\lst(A)$, with constructors $\Nil$ and~$\Cons$, and incorporates the +parameter~$n$ into the inductive set itself. It defines $\listn(A)$ as a +relation consisting of pairs $\pair{n,l}$ such that $n\in\nat$ +and~$l\in\lst(A)$ and $l$ has length~$n$. In fact, $\listn(A)$ is the +converse of the length function on~$\lst(A)$. The Isabelle/\textsc{zf} introduction +rules are +\[ \pair{0,\Nil}\in\listn(A) \qquad + \infer{\pair{\succ(n),\Cons(a,l)}\in\listn(A)} + {a\in A & \pair{n,l}\in\listn(A)} +\] +The Isabelle theory file takes, as parent, the theory~{\tt List} of lists. +We declare the constant~$\listn$ and supply an inductive definition, +specifying the domain as $\nat\times\lst(A)$: +\begin{ttbox} +ListN = List + +consts listn :: i=>i +inductive + domains "listn(A)" <= "nat*list(A)" + intrs + NilI "<0,Nil>: listn(A)" + ConsI "[| a: A; : listn(A) |] ==> : listn(A)" + type_intrs "nat_typechecks @ list.intrs" +end +\end{ttbox} +The type-checking rules include those for 0, $\succ$, $\Nil$ and $\Cons$. +Because $\listn(A)$ is a set of pairs, type-checking requires the +equivalence $\pair{a,b}\in A\times B \bimp a\in A \conj b\in B$. The +package always includes the rules for ordered pairs. + +The package returns introduction, elimination and induction rules for +$\listn$. The basic induction rule, {\tt listn.induct}, is +\[ \infer{P(z_1,z_2)}{\pair{z_1,z_2}\in\listn(A) & P(0,\Nil) & + \infer*{P(\succ(n),\Cons(a,l))} + {[a\in A & \pair{n,l}\in\listn(A) & P(n,l)]_{a,l,n}}} +\] +This rule lets the induction formula to be a +binary property of pairs, $P(n,l)$. +It is now a simple matter to prove theorems about $\listn(A)$, such as +\[ \forall l\in\lst(A). \pair{\length(l),\, l}\in\listn(A) \] +\[ \listn(A)``\{n\} = \{l\in\lst(A). \length(l)=n\} \] +This latter result --- here $r``X$ denotes the image of $X$ under $r$ +--- asserts that the inductive definition agrees with the obvious notion of +$n$-element list. + +A ``list of $n$ elements'' really is a list, namely an element of ~$\lst(A)$. +It is subject to list operators such as append (concatenation). For example, +a trivial induction on $\pair{m,l}\in\listn(A)$ yields +\[ \infer{\pair{m\mathbin{+} m',\, l@l'}\in\listn(A)} + {\pair{m,l}\in\listn(A) & \pair{m',l'}\in\listn(A)} +\] +where $+$ denotes addition on the natural numbers and @ denotes append. + +\subsection{Rule inversion: the function {\tt mk\_cases}} +The elimination rule, {\tt listn.elim}, is cumbersome: +\[ \infer{Q}{x\in\listn(A) & + \infer*{Q}{[x = \pair{0,\Nil}]} & + \infer*{Q} + {\left[\begin{array}{l} + x = \pair{\succ(n),\Cons(a,l)} \\ + a\in A \\ + \pair{n,l}\in\listn(A) + \end{array} \right]_{a,l,n}}} +\] +The \textsc{ml} function {\tt listn.mk\_cases} generates simplified instances of +this rule. It works by freeness reasoning on the list constructors: +$\Cons(a,l)$ is injective in its two arguments and differs from~$\Nil$. If +$x$ is $\pair{i,\Nil}$ or $\pair{i,\Cons(a,l)}$ then {\tt listn.mk\_cases} +deduces the corresponding form of~$i$; this is called rule inversion. +Here is a sample session: +\begin{ttbox} +listn.mk_cases list.con_defs " : listn(A)"; +{\out "[| : listn(?A); ?i = 0 ==> ?Q |] ==> ?Q" : thm} +listn.mk_cases list.con_defs " : listn(A)"; +{\out "[| : listn(?A);} +{\out !!n. [| ?a : ?A; : listn(?A); ?i = succ(n) |] ==> ?Q } +{\out |] ==> ?Q" : thm} +\end{ttbox} +Each of these rules has only two premises. In conventional notation, the +second rule is +\[ \infer{Q}{\pair{i, \Cons(a,l)}\in\listn(A) & + \infer*{Q} + {\left[\begin{array}{l} + a\in A \\ \pair{n,l}\in\listn(A) \\ i = \succ(n) + \end{array} \right]_{n}}} +\] +The package also has built-in rules for freeness reasoning about $0$ +and~$\succ$. So if $x$ is $\pair{0,l}$ or $\pair{\succ(i),l}$, then {\tt +listn.mk\_cases} can deduce the corresponding form of~$l$. + +The function {\tt mk\_cases} is also useful with datatype definitions. The +instance from the definition of lists, namely {\tt list.mk\_cases}, can +prove that $\Cons(a,l)\in\lst(A)$ implies $a\in A $ and $l\in\lst(A)$: +\[ \infer{Q}{\Cons(a,l)\in\lst(A) & + & \infer*{Q}{[a\in A &l\in\lst(A)]} } +\] +A typical use of {\tt mk\_cases} concerns inductive definitions of evaluation +relations. Then rule inversion yields case analysis on possible evaluations. +For example, Isabelle/\textsc{zf} includes a short proof of the +diamond property for parallel contraction on combinators. Ole Rasmussen used +{\tt mk\_cases} extensively in his development of the theory of +residuals~\cite{rasmussen95}. + + +\subsection{A coinductive definition: bisimulations on lazy lists} +This example anticipates the definition of the codatatype $\llist(A)$, which +consists of finite and infinite lists over~$A$. Its constructors are $\LNil$ +and~$\LCons$, satisfying the introduction rules shown in~\S\ref{coind-sec}. +Because $\llist(A)$ is defined as a greatest fixedpoint and uses the variant +pairing and injection operators, it contains non-well-founded elements such as +solutions to $\LCons(a,l)=l$. + +The next step in the development of lazy lists is to define a coinduction +principle for proving equalities. This is done by showing that the equality +relation on lazy lists is the greatest fixedpoint of some monotonic +operation. The usual approach~\cite{pitts94} is to define some notion of +bisimulation for lazy lists, define equivalence to be the greatest +bisimulation, and finally to prove that two lazy lists are equivalent if and +only if they are equal. The coinduction rule for equivalence then yields a +coinduction principle for equalities. + +A binary relation $R$ on lazy lists is a \defn{bisimulation} provided $R\sbs +R^+$, where $R^+$ is the relation +\[ \{\pair{\LNil,\LNil}\} \un + \{\pair{\LCons(a,l),\LCons(a,l')} . a\in A \conj \pair{l,l'}\in R\}. +\] +A pair of lazy lists are \defn{equivalent} if they belong to some +bisimulation. Equivalence can be coinductively defined as the greatest +fixedpoint for the introduction rules +\[ \pair{\LNil,\LNil} \in\lleq(A) \qquad + \infer[(-)]{\pair{\LCons(a,l),\LCons(a,l')} \in\lleq(A)} + {a\in A & \pair{l,l'}\in \lleq(A)} +\] +To make this coinductive definition, the theory file includes (after the +declaration of $\llist(A)$) the following lines: +\begin{ttbox} +consts lleq :: i=>i +coinductive + domains "lleq(A)" <= "llist(A) * llist(A)" + intrs + LNil " : lleq(A)" + LCons "[| a:A; : lleq(A) |] ==> : lleq(A)" + type_intrs "llist.intrs" +\end{ttbox} +The domain of $\lleq(A)$ is $\llist(A)\times\llist(A)$. The type-checking +rules include the introduction rules for $\llist(A)$, whose +declaration is discussed below (\S\ref{lists-sec}). + +The package returns the introduction rules and the elimination rule, as +usual. But instead of induction rules, it returns a coinduction rule. +The rule is too big to display in the usual notation; its conclusion is +$x\in\lleq(A)$ and its premises are $x\in X$, +${X\sbs\llist(A)\times\llist(A)}$ and +\[ \infer*{z=\pair{\LNil,\LNil}\disj \bigl(\exists a\,l\,l'.\, + \begin{array}[t]{@{}l} + z=\pair{\LCons(a,l),\LCons(a,l')} \conj a\in A \conj{}\\ + \pair{l,l'}\in X\un\lleq(A) \bigr) + \end{array} + }{[z\in X]_z} +\] +Thus if $x\in X$, where $X$ is a bisimulation contained in the +domain of $\lleq(A)$, then $x\in\lleq(A)$. It is easy to show that +$\lleq(A)$ is reflexive: the equality relation is a bisimulation. And +$\lleq(A)$ is symmetric: its converse is a bisimulation. But showing that +$\lleq(A)$ coincides with the equality relation takes some work. + +\subsection{The accessible part of a relation}\label{acc-sec} +Let $\prec$ be a binary relation on~$D$; in short, $(\prec)\sbs D\times D$. +The \defn{accessible} or \defn{well-founded} part of~$\prec$, written +$\acc(\prec)$, is essentially that subset of~$D$ for which $\prec$ admits +no infinite decreasing chains~\cite{aczel77}. Formally, $\acc(\prec)$ is +inductively defined to be the least set that contains $a$ if it contains +all $\prec$-predecessors of~$a$, for $a\in D$. Thus we need an +introduction rule of the form +\[ \infer{a\in\acc(\prec)}{\forall y.y\prec a\imp y\in\acc(\prec)} \] +Paulin-Mohring treats this example in Coq~\cite{paulin-tlca}, but it causes +difficulties for other systems. Its premise is not acceptable to the +inductive definition package of the Cambridge \textsc{hol} +system~\cite{camilleri92}. It is also unacceptable to the Isabelle package +(recall \S\ref{intro-sec}), but fortunately can be transformed into the +acceptable form $t\in M(R)$. + +The powerset operator is monotonic, and $t\in\pow(R)$ is equivalent to +$t\sbs R$. This in turn is equivalent to $\forall y\in t. y\in R$. To +express $\forall y.y\prec a\imp y\in\acc(\prec)$ we need only find a +term~$t$ such that $y\in t$ if and only if $y\prec a$. A suitable $t$ is +the inverse image of~$\{a\}$ under~$\prec$. + +The definition below follows this approach. Here $r$ is~$\prec$ and +$\field(r)$ refers to~$D$, the domain of $\acc(r)$. (The field of a +relation is the union of its domain and range.) Finally $r^{-}``\{a\}$ +denotes the inverse image of~$\{a\}$ under~$r$. We supply the theorem {\tt + Pow\_mono}, which asserts that $\pow$ is monotonic. +\begin{ttbox} +consts acc :: i=>i +inductive + domains "acc(r)" <= "field(r)" + intrs + vimage "[| r-``\{a\}: Pow(acc(r)); a: field(r) |] ==> a: acc(r)" + monos "[Pow_mono]" +\end{ttbox} +The Isabelle theory proceeds to prove facts about $\acc(\prec)$. For +instance, $\prec$ is well-founded if and only if its field is contained in +$\acc(\prec)$. + +As mentioned in~\S\ref{basic-ind-sec}, a premise of the form $t\in M(R)$ +gives rise to an unusual induction hypothesis. Let us examine the +induction rule, {\tt acc.induct}: +\[ \infer{P(x)}{x\in\acc(r) & + \infer*{P(a)}{\left[ + \begin{array}{r@{}l} + r^{-}``\{a\} &\, \in\pow(\{z\in\acc(r).P(z)\}) \\ + a &\, \in\field(r) + \end{array} + \right]_a}} +\] +The strange induction hypothesis is equivalent to +$\forall y. \pair{y,a}\in r\imp y\in\acc(r)\conj P(y)$. +Therefore the rule expresses well-founded induction on the accessible part +of~$\prec$. + +The use of inverse image is not essential. The Isabelle package can accept +introduction rules with arbitrary premises of the form $\forall +\vec{y}.P(\vec{y})\imp f(\vec{y})\in R$. The premise can be expressed +equivalently as +\[ \{z\in D. P(\vec{y}) \conj z=f(\vec{y})\} \in \pow(R) \] +provided $f(\vec{y})\in D$ for all $\vec{y}$ such that~$P(\vec{y})$. The +following section demonstrates another use of the premise $t\in M(R)$, +where $M=\lst$. + +\subsection{The primitive recursive functions}\label{primrec-sec} +The primitive recursive functions are traditionally defined inductively, as +a subset of the functions over the natural numbers. One difficulty is that +functions of all arities are taken together, but this is easily +circumvented by regarding them as functions on lists. Another difficulty, +the notion of composition, is less easily circumvented. + +Here is a more precise definition. Letting $\vec{x}$ abbreviate +$x_0,\ldots,x_{n-1}$, we can write lists such as $[\vec{x}]$, +$[y+1,\vec{x}]$, etc. A function is \defn{primitive recursive} if it +belongs to the least set of functions in $\lst(\nat)\to\nat$ containing +\begin{itemize} +\item The \defn{successor} function $\SC$, such that $\SC[y,\vec{x}]=y+1$. +\item All \defn{constant} functions $\CONST(k)$, such that + $\CONST(k)[\vec{x}]=k$. +\item All \defn{projection} functions $\PROJ(i)$, such that + $\PROJ(i)[\vec{x}]=x_i$ if $0\leq i CONST(k) : primrec" + PROJ "i: nat ==> PROJ(i) : primrec" + COMP "[| g: primrec; fs: list(primrec) |] ==> COMP(g,fs): primrec" + PREC "[| f: primrec; g: primrec |] ==> PREC(f,g): primrec" + monos "[list_mono]" + con_defs "[SC_def,CONST_def,PROJ_def,COMP_def,PREC_def]" + type_intrs "nat_typechecks @ list.intrs @ + [lam_type, list_case_type, drop_type, map_type, + apply_type, rec_type]" +end +\end{ttbox} +\hrule +\caption{Inductive definition of the primitive recursive functions} +\label{primrec-fig} +\end{figure} +\def\fs{{\it fs}} + +Szasz was using \textsc{alf}, but Coq and \textsc{hol} would also have +problems accepting this definition. Isabelle's package accepts it easily +since $[f_0,\ldots,f_{m-1}]$ is a list of primitive recursive functions and +$\lst$ is monotonic. There are five introduction rules, one for each of the +five forms of primitive recursive function. Let us examine the one for +$\COMP$: +\[ \infer{\COMP(g,\fs)\in\primrec}{g\in\primrec & \fs\in\lst(\primrec)} \] +The induction rule for $\primrec$ has one case for each introduction rule. +Due to the use of $\lst$ as a monotone operator, the composition case has +an unusual induction hypothesis: + \[ \infer*{P(\COMP(g,\fs))} + {[g\in\primrec & \fs\in\lst(\{z\in\primrec.P(z)\})]_{\fs,g}} +\] +The hypothesis states that $\fs$ is a list of primitive recursive functions, +each satisfying the induction formula. Proving the $\COMP$ case typically +requires structural induction on lists, yielding two subcases: either +$\fs=\Nil$ or else $\fs=\Cons(f,\fs')$, where $f\in\primrec$, $P(f)$, and +$\fs'$ is another list of primitive recursive functions satisfying~$P$. + +Figure~\ref{primrec-fig} presents the theory file. Theory {\tt Primrec} +defines the constants $\SC$, $\CONST$, etc. These are not constructors of +a new datatype, but functions over lists of numbers. Their definitions, +most of which are omitted, consist of routine list programming. In +Isabelle/\textsc{zf}, the primitive recursive functions are defined as a subset of +the function set $\lst(\nat)\to\nat$. + +The Isabelle theory goes on to formalize Ackermann's function and prove +that it is not primitive recursive, using the induction rule {\tt + primrec.induct}. The proof follows Szasz's excellent account. + + +\section{Datatypes and codatatypes}\label{data-sec} +A (co)datatype definition is a (co)inductive definition with automatically +defined constructors and a case analysis operator. The package proves that +the case operator inverts the constructors and can prove freeness theorems +involving any pair of constructors. + + +\subsection{Constructors and their domain}\label{univ-sec} +A (co)inductive definition selects a subset of an existing set; a (co)datatype +definition creates a new set. The package reduces the latter to the former. +Isabelle/\textsc{zf} supplies sets having strong closure properties to serve +as domains for (co)inductive definitions. + +Isabelle/\textsc{zf} defines the Cartesian product $A\times +B$, containing ordered pairs $\pair{a,b}$; it also defines the +disjoint sum $A+B$, containing injections $\Inl(a)\equiv\pair{0,a}$ and +$\Inr(b)\equiv\pair{1,b}$. For use below, define the $m$-tuple +$\pair{x_1,\ldots,x_m}$ to be the empty set~$\emptyset$ if $m=0$, simply $x_1$ +if $m=1$ and $\pair{x_1,\pair{x_2,\ldots,x_m}}$ if $m\geq2$. + +A datatype constructor $\Con(x_1,\ldots,x_m)$ is defined to be +$h(\pair{x_1,\ldots,x_m})$, where $h$ is composed of $\Inl$ and~$\Inr$. +In a mutually recursive definition, all constructors for the set~$R_i$ have +the outer form~$h_{in}$, where $h_{in}$ is the injection described +in~\S\ref{mutual-sec}. Further nested injections ensure that the +constructors for~$R_i$ are pairwise distinct. + +Isabelle/\textsc{zf} defines the set $\univ(A)$, which contains~$A$ and +furthermore contains $\pair{a,b}$, $\Inl(a)$ and $\Inr(b)$ for $a$, +$b\in\univ(A)$. In a typical datatype definition with set parameters +$A_1$, \ldots, $A_k$, a suitable domain for all the recursive sets is +$\univ(A_1\un\cdots\un A_k)$. This solves the problem for +datatypes~\cite[\S4.2]{paulson-set-II}. + +The standard pairs and injections can only yield well-founded +constructions. This eases the (manual!) definition of recursive functions +over datatypes. But they are unsuitable for codatatypes, which typically +contain non-well-founded objects. + +To support codatatypes, Isabelle/\textsc{zf} defines a variant notion of +ordered pair, written~$\pair{a;b}$. It also defines the corresponding variant +notion of Cartesian product $A\otimes B$, variant injections $\QInl(a)$ +and~$\QInr(b)$ and variant disjoint sum $A\oplus B$. Finally it defines the +set $\quniv(A)$, which contains~$A$ and furthermore contains $\pair{a;b}$, +$\QInl(a)$ and $\QInr(b)$ for $a$, $b\in\quniv(A)$. In a typical codatatype +definition with set parameters $A_1$, \ldots, $A_k$, a suitable domain is +$\quniv(A_1\un\cdots\un A_k)$. Details are published +elsewhere~\cite{paulson-final}. + +\subsection{The case analysis operator} +The (co)datatype package automatically defines a case analysis operator, +called {\tt$R$\_case}. A mutually recursive definition still has only one +operator, whose name combines those of the recursive sets: it is called +{\tt$R_1$\_\ldots\_$R_n$\_case}. The case operator is analogous to those +for products and sums. + +Datatype definitions employ standard products and sums, whose operators are +$\split$ and $\case$ and satisfy the equations +\begin{eqnarray*} + \split(f,\pair{x,y}) & = & f(x,y) \\ + \case(f,g,\Inl(x)) & = & f(x) \\ + \case(f,g,\Inr(y)) & = & g(y) +\end{eqnarray*} +Suppose the datatype has $k$ constructors $\Con_1$, \ldots,~$\Con_k$. Then +its case operator takes $k+1$ arguments and satisfies an equation for each +constructor: +\[ R\hbox{\_case}(f_1,\ldots,f_k, {\tt Con}_i(\vec{x})) = f_i(\vec{x}), + \qquad i = 1, \ldots, k +\] +The case operator's definition takes advantage of Isabelle's representation of +syntax in the typed $\lambda$-calculus; it could readily be adapted to a +theorem prover for higher-order logic. If $f$ and~$g$ have meta-type $i\To i$ +then so do $\split(f)$ and $\case(f,g)$. This works because $\split$ and +$\case$ operate on their last argument. They are easily combined to make +complex case analysis operators. For example, $\case(f,\case(g,h))$ performs +case analysis for $A+(B+C)$; let us verify one of the three equations: +\[ \case(f,\case(g,h), \Inr(\Inl(b))) = \case(g,h,\Inl(b)) = g(b) \] +Codatatype definitions are treated in precisely the same way. They express +case operators using those for the variant products and sums, namely +$\qsplit$ and~$\qcase$. + +\medskip + +To see how constructors and the case analysis operator are defined, let us +examine some examples. Further details are available +elsewhere~\cite{paulson-set-II}. + + +\subsection{Example: lists and lazy lists}\label{lists-sec} +Here is a declaration of the datatype of lists, as it might appear in a theory +file: +\begin{ttbox} +consts list :: i=>i +datatype "list(A)" = Nil | Cons ("a:A", "l: list(A)") +\end{ttbox} +And here is a declaration of the codatatype of lazy lists: +\begin{ttbox} +consts llist :: i=>i +codatatype "llist(A)" = LNil | LCons ("a: A", "l: llist(A)") +\end{ttbox} + +Each form of list has two constructors, one for the empty list and one for +adding an element to a list. Each takes a parameter, defining the set of +lists over a given set~$A$. Each is automatically given the appropriate +domain: $\univ(A)$ for $\lst(A)$ and $\quniv(A)$ for $\llist(A)$. The default +can be overridden. + +\ifshort +Now $\lst(A)$ is a datatype and enjoys the usual induction rule. +\else +Since $\lst(A)$ is a datatype, it enjoys a structural induction rule, {\tt + list.induct}: +\[ \infer{P(x)}{x\in\lst(A) & P(\Nil) + & \infer*{P(\Cons(a,l))}{[a\in A & l\in\lst(A) & P(l)]_{a,l}} } +\] +Induction and freeness yield the law $l\not=\Cons(a,l)$. To strengthen this, +Isabelle/\textsc{zf} defines the rank of a set and proves that the standard +pairs and injections have greater rank than their components. An immediate +consequence, which justifies structural recursion on lists +\cite[\S4.3]{paulson-set-II}, is +\[ \rank(l) < \rank(\Cons(a,l)). \] +\par +\fi +But $\llist(A)$ is a codatatype and has no induction rule. Instead it has +the coinduction rule shown in \S\ref{coind-sec}. Since variant pairs and +injections are monotonic and need not have greater rank than their +components, fixedpoint operators can create cyclic constructions. For +example, the definition +\[ \lconst(a) \equiv \lfp(\univ(a), \lambda l. \LCons(a,l)) \] +yields $\lconst(a) = \LCons(a,\lconst(a))$. + +\ifshort +\typeout{****SHORT VERSION} +\typeout{****Omitting discussion of constructors!} +\else +\medskip +It may be instructive to examine the definitions of the constructors and +case operator for $\lst(A)$. The definitions for $\llist(A)$ are similar. +The list constructors are defined as follows: +\begin{eqnarray*} + \Nil & \equiv & \Inl(\emptyset) \\ + \Cons(a,l) & \equiv & \Inr(\pair{a,l}) +\end{eqnarray*} +The operator $\lstcase$ performs case analysis on these two alternatives: +\[ \lstcase(c,h) \equiv \case(\lambda u.c, \split(h)) \] +Let us verify the two equations: +\begin{eqnarray*} + \lstcase(c, h, \Nil) & = & + \case(\lambda u.c, \split(h), \Inl(\emptyset)) \\ + & = & (\lambda u.c)(\emptyset) \\ + & = & c\\[1ex] + \lstcase(c, h, \Cons(x,y)) & = & + \case(\lambda u.c, \split(h), \Inr(\pair{x,y})) \\ + & = & \split(h, \pair{x,y}) \\ + & = & h(x,y) +\end{eqnarray*} +\fi + + +\ifshort +\typeout{****Omitting mutual recursion example!} +\else +\subsection{Example: mutual recursion} +In mutually recursive trees and forests~\cite[\S4.5]{paulson-set-II}, trees +have the one constructor $\Tcons$, while forests have the two constructors +$\Fnil$ and~$\Fcons$: +\begin{ttbox} +consts tree, forest, tree_forest :: i=>i +datatype "tree(A)" = Tcons ("a: A", "f: forest(A)") +and "forest(A)" = Fnil | Fcons ("t: tree(A)", "f: forest(A)") +\end{ttbox} +The three introduction rules define the mutual recursion. The +distinguishing feature of this example is its two induction rules. + +The basic induction rule is called {\tt tree\_forest.induct}: +\[ \infer{P(x)}{x\in\TF(A) & + \infer*{P(\Tcons(a,f))} + {\left[\begin{array}{l} a\in A \\ + f\in\forest(A) \\ P(f) + \end{array} + \right]_{a,f}} + & P(\Fnil) + & \infer*{P(\Fcons(t,f))} + {\left[\begin{array}{l} t\in\tree(A) \\ P(t) \\ + f\in\forest(A) \\ P(f) + \end{array} + \right]_{t,f}} } +\] +This rule establishes a single predicate for $\TF(A)$, the union of the +recursive sets. Although such reasoning is sometimes useful +\cite[\S4.5]{paulson-set-II}, a proper mutual induction rule should establish +separate predicates for $\tree(A)$ and $\forest(A)$. The package calls this +rule {\tt tree\_forest.mutual\_induct}. Observe the usage of $P$ and $Q$ in +the induction hypotheses: +\[ \infer{(\forall z. z\in\tree(A)\imp P(z)) \conj + (\forall z. z\in\forest(A)\imp Q(z))} + {\infer*{P(\Tcons(a,f))} + {\left[\begin{array}{l} a\in A \\ + f\in\forest(A) \\ Q(f) + \end{array} + \right]_{a,f}} + & Q(\Fnil) + & \infer*{Q(\Fcons(t,f))} + {\left[\begin{array}{l} t\in\tree(A) \\ P(t) \\ + f\in\forest(A) \\ Q(f) + \end{array} + \right]_{t,f}} } +\] +Elsewhere I describe how to define mutually recursive functions over trees and +forests \cite[\S4.5]{paulson-set-II}. + +Both forest constructors have the form $\Inr(\cdots)$, +while the tree constructor has the form $\Inl(\cdots)$. This pattern would +hold regardless of how many tree or forest constructors there were. +\begin{eqnarray*} + \Tcons(a,l) & \equiv & \Inl(\pair{a,l}) \\ + \Fnil & \equiv & \Inr(\Inl(\emptyset)) \\ + \Fcons(a,l) & \equiv & \Inr(\Inr(\pair{a,l})) +\end{eqnarray*} +There is only one case operator; it works on the union of the trees and +forests: +\[ {\tt tree\_forest\_case}(f,c,g) \equiv + \case(\split(f),\, \case(\lambda u.c, \split(g))) +\] +\fi + + +\subsection{Example: a four-constructor datatype} +A bigger datatype will illustrate some efficiency +refinements. It has four constructors $\Con_0$, \ldots, $\Con_3$, with the +corresponding arities. +\begin{ttbox} +consts data :: [i,i] => i +datatype "data(A,B)" = Con0 + | Con1 ("a: A") + | Con2 ("a: A", "b: B") + | Con3 ("a: A", "b: B", "d: data(A,B)") +\end{ttbox} +Because this datatype has two set parameters, $A$ and~$B$, the package +automatically supplies $\univ(A\un B)$ as its domain. The structural +induction rule has four minor premises, one per constructor, and only the last +has an induction hypothesis. (Details are left to the reader.) + +The constructors are defined by the equations +\begin{eqnarray*} + \Con_0 & \equiv & \Inl(\Inl(\emptyset)) \\ + \Con_1(a) & \equiv & \Inl(\Inr(a)) \\ + \Con_2(a,b) & \equiv & \Inr(\Inl(\pair{a,b})) \\ + \Con_3(a,b,c) & \equiv & \Inr(\Inr(\pair{a,b,c})). +\end{eqnarray*} +The case analysis operator is +\[ {\tt data\_case}(f_0,f_1,f_2,f_3) \equiv + \case(\begin{array}[t]{@{}l} + \case(\lambda u.f_0,\; f_1),\, \\ + \case(\split(f_2),\; \split(\lambda v.\split(f_3(v)))) ) + \end{array} +\] +This may look cryptic, but the case equations are trivial to verify. + +In the constructor definitions, the injections are balanced. A more naive +approach is to define $\Con_3(a,b,c)$ as $\Inr(\Inr(\Inr(\pair{a,b,c})))$; +instead, each constructor has two injections. The difference here is small. +But the \textsc{zf} examples include a 60-element enumeration type, where each +constructor has 5 or~6 injections. The naive approach would require 1 to~59 +injections; the definitions would be quadratic in size. It is like the +advantage of binary notation over unary. + +The result structure contains the case operator and constructor definitions as +the theorem list \verb|con_defs|. It contains the case equations, such as +\[ {\tt data\_case}(f_0,f_1,f_2,f_3,\Con_3(a,b,c)) = f_3(a,b,c), \] +as the theorem list \verb|case_eqns|. There is one equation per constructor. + +\subsection{Proving freeness theorems} +There are two kinds of freeness theorems: +\begin{itemize} +\item \defn{injectiveness} theorems, such as +\[ \Con_2(a,b) = \Con_2(a',b') \bimp a=a' \conj b=b' \] + +\item \defn{distinctness} theorems, such as +\[ \Con_1(a) \not= \Con_2(a',b') \] +\end{itemize} +Since the number of such theorems is quadratic in the number of constructors, +the package does not attempt to prove them all. Instead it returns tools for +proving desired theorems --- either manually or during +simplification or classical reasoning. + +The theorem list \verb|free_iffs| enables the simplifier to perform freeness +reasoning. This works by incremental unfolding of constructors that appear in +equations. The theorem list contains logical equivalences such as +\begin{eqnarray*} + \Con_0=c & \bimp & c=\Inl(\Inl(\emptyset)) \\ + \Con_1(a)=c & \bimp & c=\Inl(\Inr(a)) \\ + & \vdots & \\ + \Inl(a)=\Inl(b) & \bimp & a=b \\ + \Inl(a)=\Inr(b) & \bimp & {\tt False} \\ + \pair{a,b} = \pair{a',b'} & \bimp & a=a' \conj b=b' +\end{eqnarray*} +For example, these rewrite $\Con_1(a)=\Con_1(b)$ to $a=b$ in four steps. + +The theorem list \verb|free_SEs| enables the classical +reasoner to perform similar replacements. It consists of elimination rules +to replace $\Con_0=c$ by $c=\Inl(\Inl(\emptyset))$ and so forth, in the +assumptions. + +Such incremental unfolding combines freeness reasoning with other proof +steps. It has the unfortunate side-effect of unfolding definitions of +constructors in contexts such as $\exists x.\Con_1(a)=x$, where they should +be left alone. Calling the Isabelle tactic {\tt fold\_tac con\_defs} +restores the defined constants. + + +\section{Related work}\label{related} +The use of least fixedpoints to express inductive definitions seems +obvious. Why, then, has this technique so seldom been implemented? + +Most automated logics can only express inductive definitions by asserting +axioms. Little would be left of Boyer and Moore's logic~\cite{bm79} if their +shell principle were removed. With \textsc{alf} the situation is more +complex; earlier versions of Martin-L\"of's type theory could (using +wellordering types) express datatype definitions, but the version underlying +\textsc{alf} requires new rules for each definition~\cite{dybjer91}. With Coq +the situation is subtler still; its underlying Calculus of Constructions can +express inductive definitions~\cite{huet88}, but cannot quite handle datatype +definitions~\cite{paulin-tlca}. It seems that researchers tried hard to +circumvent these problems before finally extending the Calculus with rule +schemes for strictly positive operators. Recently Gim{\'e}nez has extended +the Calculus of Constructions with inductive and coinductive +types~\cite{gimenez-codifying}, with mechanized support in Coq. + +Higher-order logic can express inductive definitions through quantification +over unary predicates. The following formula expresses that~$i$ belongs to the +least set containing~0 and closed under~$\succ$: +\[ \forall P. P(0)\conj (\forall x.P(x)\imp P(\succ(x))) \imp P(i) \] +This technique can be used to prove the Knaster-Tarski theorem, which (in its +general form) is little used in the Cambridge \textsc{hol} system. +Melham~\cite{melham89} describes the development. The natural numbers are +defined as shown above, but lists are defined as functions over the natural +numbers. Unlabelled trees are defined using G\"odel numbering; a labelled +tree consists of an unlabelled tree paired with a list of labels. Melham's +datatype package expresses the user's datatypes in terms of labelled trees. +It has been highly successful, but a fixedpoint approach might have yielded +greater power with less effort. + +Elsa Gunter~\cite{gunter-trees} reports an ongoing project to generalize the +Cambridge \textsc{hol} system with mutual recursion and infinitely-branching +trees. She retains many features of Melham's approach. + +Melham's inductive definition package~\cite{camilleri92} also uses +quantification over predicates. But instead of formalizing the notion of +monotone function, it requires definitions to consist of finitary rules, a +syntactic form that excludes many monotone inductive definitions. + +\textsc{pvs}~\cite{pvs-language} is another proof assistant based on +higher-order logic. It supports both inductive definitions and datatypes, +apparently by asserting axioms. Datatypes may not be iterated in general, but +may use recursion over the built-in $\lst$ type. + +The earliest use of least fixedpoints is probably Robin Milner's. Brian +Monahan extended this package considerably~\cite{monahan84}, as did I in +unpublished work.\footnote{The datatype package described in my \textsc{lcf} + book~\cite{paulson87} does {\it not\/} make definitions, but merely asserts + axioms.} \textsc{lcf} is a first-order logic of domain theory; the relevant +fixedpoint theorem is not Knaster-Tarski but concerns fixedpoints of +continuous functions over domains. \textsc{lcf} is too weak to express +recursive predicates. The Isabelle package might be the first to be based on +the Knaster-Tarski theorem. + + +\section{Conclusions and future work} +Higher-order logic and set theory are both powerful enough to express +inductive definitions. A growing number of theorem provers implement one +of these~\cite{IMPS,saaltink-fme}. The easiest sort of inductive +definition package to write is one that asserts new axioms, not one that +makes definitions and proves theorems about them. But asserting axioms +could introduce unsoundness. + +The fixedpoint approach makes it fairly easy to implement a package for +(co)in\-duc\-tive definitions that does not assert axioms. It is efficient: +it processes most definitions in seconds and even a 60-constructor datatype +requires only a few minutes. It is also simple: The first working version took +under a week to code, consisting of under 1100 lines (35K bytes) of Standard +\textsc{ml}. + +In set theory, care is needed to ensure that the inductive definition yields +a set (rather than a proper class). This problem is inherent to set theory, +whether or not the Knaster-Tarski theorem is employed. We must exhibit a +bounding set (called a domain above). For inductive definitions, this is +often trivial. For datatype definitions, I have had to formalize much set +theory. To justify infinitely-branching datatype definitions, I have had to +develop a theory of cardinal arithmetic~\cite{paulson-gr}, such as the theorem +that if $\kappa$ is an infinite cardinal and $|X(\alpha)| \le \kappa$ for all +$\alpha<\kappa$ then $|\union\sb{\alpha<\kappa} X(\alpha)| \le \kappa$. +The need for such efforts is not a drawback of the fixedpoint approach, for +the alternative is to take such definitions on faith. + +Care is also needed to ensure that the greatest fixedpoint really yields a +coinductive definition. In set theory, standard pairs admit only well-founded +constructions. Aczel's anti-foundation axiom~\cite{aczel88} could be used to +get non-well-founded objects, but it does not seem easy to mechanize. +Isabelle/\textsc{zf} instead uses a variant notion of ordered pairing, which +can be generalized to a variant notion of function. Elsewhere I have +proved that this simple approach works (yielding final coalgebras) for a broad +class of definitions~\cite{paulson-final}. + +Several large studies make heavy use of inductive definitions. L\"otzbeyer +and Sandner have formalized two chapters of a semantics book~\cite{winskel93}, +proving the equivalence between the operational and denotational semantics of +a simple imperative language. A single theory file contains three datatype +definitions (of arithmetic expressions, boolean expressions and commands) and +three inductive definitions (the corresponding operational rules). Using +different techniques, Nipkow~\cite{nipkow-CR} and Rasmussen~\cite{rasmussen95} +have both proved the Church-Rosser theorem; inductive definitions specify +several reduction relations on $\lambda$-terms. Recently, I have applied +inductive definitions to the analysis of cryptographic +protocols~\cite{paulson-markt}. + +To demonstrate coinductive definitions, Frost~\cite{frost95} has proved the +consistency of the dynamic and static semantics for a small functional +language. The example is due to Milner and Tofte~\cite{milner-coind}. It +concerns an extended correspondence relation, which is defined coinductively. +A codatatype definition specifies values and value environments in mutual +recursion. Non-well-founded values represent recursive functions. Value +environments are variant functions from variables into values. This one key +definition uses most of the package's novel features. + +The approach is not restricted to set theory. It should be suitable for any +logic that has some notion of set and the Knaster-Tarski theorem. I have +ported the (co)inductive definition package from Isabelle/\textsc{zf} to +Isabelle/\textsc{hol} (higher-order logic). V\"olker~\cite{voelker95} +is investigating how to port the (co)datatype package. \textsc{hol} +represents sets by unary predicates; defining the corresponding types may +cause complications. + + +\begin{footnotesize} +\bibliographystyle{springer} +\bibliography{string-abbrv,atp,theory,funprog,isabelle,crossref} +\end{footnotesize} +%%%%%\doendnotes + +\ifshort\typeout{****Omitting appendices} +\else +\newpage +\appendix +\section{Inductive and coinductive definitions: users guide} +A theory file may contain any number of inductive and coinductive +definitions. They may be intermixed with other declarations; in +particular, the (co)inductive sets \defn{must} be declared separately as +constants, and may have mixfix syntax or be subject to syntax translations. + +The syntax is rather complicated. Please consult the examples above and the +theory files on the \textsc{zf} source directory. + +Each (co)inductive definition adds definitions to the theory and also proves +some theorems. Each definition creates an \textsc{ml} structure, which is a +substructure of the main theory structure. + +Inductive and datatype definitions can take up considerable storage. The +introduction rules are replicated in slightly different forms as fixedpoint +definitions, elimination rules and induction rules. L\"otzbeyer and Sandner's +six definitions occupy over 600K in total. Defining the 60-constructor +datatype requires nearly 560K\@. + +\subsection{The result structure} +Many of the result structure's components have been discussed +in~\S\ref{basic-sec}; others are self-explanatory. +\begin{description} +\item[\tt thy] is the new theory containing the recursive sets. + +\item[\tt defs] is the list of definitions of the recursive sets. + +\item[\tt bnd\_mono] is a monotonicity theorem for the fixedpoint operator. + +\item[\tt dom\_subset] is a theorem stating inclusion in the domain. + +\item[\tt intrs] is the list of introduction rules, now proved as theorems, for +the recursive sets. The rules are also available individually, using the +names given them in the theory file. + +\item[\tt elim] is the elimination rule. + +\item[\tt mk\_cases] is a function to create simplified instances of {\tt +elim}, using freeness reasoning on some underlying datatype. +\end{description} + +For an inductive definition, the result structure contains two induction +rules, {\tt induct} and \verb|mutual_induct|. (To save storage, the latter +rule is just {\tt True} unless more than one set is being defined.) For a +coinductive definition, it contains the rule \verb|coinduct|. + +Figure~\ref{def-result-fig} summarizes the two result signatures, +specifying the types of all these components. + +\begin{figure} +\begin{ttbox} +sig +val thy : theory +val defs : thm list +val bnd_mono : thm +val dom_subset : thm +val intrs : thm list +val elim : thm +val mk_cases : thm list -> string -> thm +{\it(Inductive definitions only)} +val induct : thm +val mutual_induct: thm +{\it(Coinductive definitions only)} +val coinduct : thm +end +\end{ttbox} +\hrule +\caption{The result of a (co)inductive definition} \label{def-result-fig} +\end{figure} + +\subsection{The syntax of a (co)inductive definition} +An inductive definition has the form +\begin{ttbox} +inductive + domains {\it domain declarations} + intrs {\it introduction rules} + monos {\it monotonicity theorems} + con_defs {\it constructor definitions} + type_intrs {\it introduction rules for type-checking} + type_elims {\it elimination rules for type-checking} +\end{ttbox} +A coinductive definition is identical, but starts with the keyword +{\tt coinductive}. + +The {\tt monos}, {\tt con\_defs}, {\tt type\_intrs} and {\tt type\_elims} +sections are optional. If present, each is specified as a string, which +must be a valid \textsc{ml} expression of type {\tt thm list}. It is simply +inserted into the {\tt .thy.ML} file; if it is ill-formed, it will trigger +\textsc{ml} error messages. You can then inspect the file on your directory. + +\begin{description} +\item[\it domain declarations] consist of one or more items of the form + {\it string\/}~{\tt <=}~{\it string}, associating each recursive set with + its domain. + +\item[\it introduction rules] specify one or more introduction rules in + the form {\it ident\/}~{\it string}, where the identifier gives the name of + the rule in the result structure. + +\item[\it monotonicity theorems] are required for each operator applied to + a recursive set in the introduction rules. There \defn{must} be a theorem + of the form $A\sbs B\Imp M(A)\sbs M(B)$, for each premise $t\in M(R_i)$ + in an introduction rule! + +\item[\it constructor definitions] contain definitions of constants + appearing in the introduction rules. The (co)datatype package supplies + the constructors' definitions here. Most (co)inductive definitions omit + this section; one exception is the primitive recursive functions example + (\S\ref{primrec-sec}). + +\item[\it type\_intrs] consists of introduction rules for type-checking the + definition, as discussed in~\S\ref{basic-sec}. They are applied using + depth-first search; you can trace the proof by setting + + \verb|trace_DEPTH_FIRST := true|. + +\item[\it type\_elims] consists of elimination rules for type-checking the + definition. They are presumed to be safe and are applied as much as + possible, prior to the {\tt type\_intrs} search. +\end{description} + +The package has a few notable restrictions: +\begin{itemize} +\item The theory must separately declare the recursive sets as + constants. + +\item The names of the recursive sets must be identifiers, not infix +operators. + +\item Side-conditions must not be conjunctions. However, an introduction rule +may contain any number of side-conditions. + +\item Side-conditions of the form $x=t$, where the variable~$x$ does not + occur in~$t$, will be substituted through the rule \verb|mutual_induct|. +\end{itemize} + +Isabelle/\textsc{hol} uses a simplified syntax for inductive definitions, +thanks to type-checking. There are no \texttt{domains}, \texttt{type\_intrs} +or \texttt{type\_elims} parts. + + +\section{Datatype and codatatype definitions: users guide} +This section explains how to include (co)datatype declarations in a theory +file. Please include {\tt Datatype} as a parent theory; this makes available +the definitions of $\univ$ and $\quniv$. + + +\subsection{The result structure} +The result structure extends that of (co)inductive definitions +(Figure~\ref{def-result-fig}) with several additional items: +\begin{ttbox} +val con_defs : thm list +val case_eqns : thm list +val free_iffs : thm list +val free_SEs : thm list +val mk_free : string -> thm +\end{ttbox} +Most of these have been discussed in~\S\ref{data-sec}. Here is a summary: +\begin{description} +\item[\tt con\_defs] is a list of definitions: the case operator followed by +the constructors. This theorem list can be supplied to \verb|mk_cases|, for +example. + +\item[\tt case\_eqns] is a list of equations, stating that the case operator +inverts each constructor. + +\item[\tt free\_iffs] is a list of logical equivalences to perform freeness +reasoning by rewriting. A typical application has the form +\begin{ttbox} +by (asm_simp_tac (ZF_ss addsimps free_iffs) 1); +\end{ttbox} + +\item[\tt free\_SEs] is a list of safe elimination rules to perform freeness +reasoning. It can be supplied to \verb|eresolve_tac| or to the classical +reasoner: +\begin{ttbox} +by (fast_tac (ZF_cs addSEs free_SEs) 1); +\end{ttbox} + +\item[\tt mk\_free] is a function to prove freeness properties, specified as +strings. The theorems can be expressed in various forms, such as logical +equivalences or elimination rules. +\end{description} + +The result structure also inherits everything from the underlying +(co)inductive definition, such as the introduction rules, elimination rule, +and (co)induction rule. + + +\subsection{The syntax of a (co)datatype definition} +A datatype definition has the form +\begin{ttbox} +datatype <={\it domain} + {\it datatype declaration} and {\it datatype declaration} and \ldots + monos {\it monotonicity theorems} + type_intrs {\it introduction rules for type-checking} + type_elims {\it elimination rules for type-checking} +\end{ttbox} +A codatatype definition is identical save that it starts with the keyword {\tt + codatatype}. + +The {\tt monos}, {\tt type\_intrs} and {\tt type\_elims} sections are +optional. They are treated like their counterparts in a (co)inductive +definition, as described above. The package supplements your type-checking +rules (if any) with additional ones that should cope with any +finitely-branching (co)datatype definition. + +\begin{description} +\item[\it domain] specifies a single domain to use for all the mutually + recursive (co)datatypes. If it (and the preceeding~{\tt <=}) are + omitted, the package supplies a domain automatically. Suppose the + definition involves the set parameters $A_1$, \ldots, $A_k$. Then + $\univ(A_1\un\cdots\un A_k)$ is used for a datatype definition and + $\quniv(A_1\un\cdots\un A_k)$ is used for a codatatype definition. + + These choices should work for all finitely-branching (co)datatype + definitions. For examples of infinitely-branching datatypes, + see file {\tt ZF/ex/Brouwer.thy}. + +\item[\it datatype declaration] has the form +\begin{quote} + {\it string\/} {\tt =} {\it constructor} {\tt|} {\it constructor} {\tt|} + \ldots +\end{quote} +The {\it string\/} is the datatype, say {\tt"list(A)"}. Each +{\it constructor\/} has the form +\begin{quote} + {\it name\/} {\tt(} {\it premise} {\tt,} {\it premise} {\tt,} \ldots {\tt)} + {\it mixfix\/} +\end{quote} +The {\it name\/} specifies a new constructor while the {\it premises\/} its +typing conditions. The optional {\it mixfix\/} phrase may give +the constructor infix, for example. + +Mutually recursive {\it datatype declarations\/} are separated by the +keyword~{\tt and}. +\end{description} + +Isabelle/\textsc{hol}'s datatype definition package is (as of this writing) +entirely different from Isabelle/\textsc{zf}'s. The syntax is different, and +instead of making an inductive definition it asserts axioms. + +\paragraph*{Note.} +In the definitions of the constructors, the right-hand sides may overlap. +For instance, the datatype of combinators has constructors defined by +\begin{eqnarray*} + {\tt K} & \equiv & \Inl(\emptyset) \\ + {\tt S} & \equiv & \Inr(\Inl(\emptyset)) \\ + p{\tt\#}q & \equiv & \Inr(\Inl(\pair{p,q})) +\end{eqnarray*} +Unlike in previous versions of Isabelle, \verb|fold_tac| now ensures that the +longest right-hand sides are folded first. + +\fi +\end{document}