# HG changeset patch # User haftmann # Date 1282911753 -7200 # Node ID e527a34bf69d1a4ef3b2acc87e964b2b6a2d7a72 # Parent c3511b11259513f88dbbd7a4ef7b6277ace4ec26 tuned whitespace diff -r c3511b112595 -r e527a34bf69d doc-src/Classes/Thy/Classes.thy --- a/doc-src/Classes/Thy/Classes.thy Fri Aug 27 14:22:15 2010 +0200 +++ b/doc-src/Classes/Thy/Classes.thy Fri Aug 27 14:22:33 2010 +0200 @@ -8,14 +8,14 @@ Type classes were introduced by Wadler and Blott \cite{wadler89how} into the Haskell language to allow for a reasonable implementation of overloading\footnote{throughout this tutorial, we are referring - to classical Haskell 1.0 type classes, not considering - later additions in expressiveness}. - As a canonical example, a polymorphic equality function - @{text "eq \ \ \ \ \ bool"} which is overloaded on different - types for @{text "\"}, which is achieved by splitting introduction - of the @{text eq} function from its overloaded definitions by means - of @{text class} and @{text instance} declarations: - \footnote{syntax here is a kind of isabellized Haskell} + to classical Haskell 1.0 type classes, not considering later + additions in expressiveness}. As a canonical example, a polymorphic + equality function @{text "eq \ \ \ \ \ bool"} which is overloaded on + different types for @{text "\"}, which is achieved by splitting + introduction of the @{text eq} function from its overloaded + definitions by means of @{text class} and @{text instance} + declarations: \footnote{syntax here is a kind of isabellized + Haskell} \begin{quote} @@ -41,14 +41,14 @@ these annotations are assertions that a particular polymorphic type provides definitions for overloaded functions. - Indeed, type classes not only allow for simple overloading - but form a generic calculus, an instance of order-sorted - algebra \cite{nipkow-sorts93,Nipkow-Prehofer:1993,Wenzel:1997:TPHOL}. + Indeed, type classes not only allow for simple overloading but form + a generic calculus, an instance of order-sorted algebra + \cite{nipkow-sorts93,Nipkow-Prehofer:1993,Wenzel:1997:TPHOL}. - From a software engineering point of view, type classes - roughly correspond to interfaces in object-oriented languages like Java; - so, it is naturally desirable that type classes do not only - provide functions (class parameters) but also state specifications + From a software engineering point of view, type classes roughly + correspond to interfaces in object-oriented languages like Java; so, + it is naturally desirable that type classes do not only provide + functions (class parameters) but also state specifications implementations must obey. For example, the @{text "class eq"} above could be given the following specification, demanding that @{text "class eq"} is an equivalence relation obeying reflexivity, @@ -65,11 +65,10 @@ \end{quote} - \noindent From a theoretical point of view, type classes are lightweight - modules; Haskell type classes may be emulated by - SML functors \cite{classes_modules}. - Isabelle/Isar offers a discipline of type classes which brings - all those aspects together: + \noindent From a theoretical point of view, type classes are + lightweight modules; Haskell type classes may be emulated by SML + functors \cite{classes_modules}. Isabelle/Isar offers a discipline + of type classes which brings all those aspects together: \begin{enumerate} \item specifying abstract parameters together with @@ -81,15 +80,15 @@ locales \cite{kammueller-locales}. \end{enumerate} - \noindent Isar type classes also directly support code generation - in a Haskell like fashion. Internally, they are mapped to more primitive - Isabelle concepts \cite{Haftmann-Wenzel:2006:classes}. + \noindent Isar type classes also directly support code generation in + a Haskell like fashion. Internally, they are mapped to more + primitive Isabelle concepts \cite{Haftmann-Wenzel:2006:classes}. - This tutorial demonstrates common elements of structured specifications - and abstract reasoning with type classes by the algebraic hierarchy of - semigroups, monoids and groups. Our background theory is that of - Isabelle/HOL \cite{isa-tutorial}, for which some - familiarity is assumed. + This tutorial demonstrates common elements of structured + specifications and abstract reasoning with type classes by the + algebraic hierarchy of semigroups, monoids and groups. Our + background theory is that of Isabelle/HOL \cite{isa-tutorial}, for + which some familiarity is assumed. *} section {* A simple algebra example \label{sec:example} *} @@ -107,25 +106,24 @@ assumes assoc: "(x \ y) \ z = x \ (y \ z)" text {* - \noindent This @{command class} specification consists of two - parts: the \qn{operational} part names the class parameter - (@{element "fixes"}), the \qn{logical} part specifies properties on them - (@{element "assumes"}). The local @{element "fixes"} and - @{element "assumes"} are lifted to the theory toplevel, - yielding the global + \noindent This @{command class} specification consists of two parts: + the \qn{operational} part names the class parameter (@{element + "fixes"}), the \qn{logical} part specifies properties on them + (@{element "assumes"}). The local @{element "fixes"} and @{element + "assumes"} are lifted to the theory toplevel, yielding the global parameter @{term [source] "mult \ \\semigroup \ \ \ \"} and the - global theorem @{fact "semigroup.assoc:"}~@{prop [source] "\x y - z \ \\semigroup. (x \ y) \ z = x \ (y \ z)"}. + global theorem @{fact "semigroup.assoc:"}~@{prop [source] "\x y z \ + \\semigroup. (x \ y) \ z = x \ (y \ z)"}. *} subsection {* Class instantiation \label{sec:class_inst} *} text {* - The concrete type @{typ int} is made a @{class semigroup} - instance by providing a suitable definition for the class parameter - @{text "(\)"} and a proof for the specification of @{fact assoc}. - This is accomplished by the @{command instantiation} target: + The concrete type @{typ int} is made a @{class semigroup} instance + by providing a suitable definition for the class parameter @{text + "(\)"} and a proof for the specification of @{fact assoc}. This is + accomplished by the @{command instantiation} target: *} instantiation %quote int :: semigroup @@ -143,22 +141,22 @@ end %quote text {* - \noindent @{command instantiation} defines class parameters - at a particular instance using common specification tools (here, - @{command definition}). The concluding @{command instance} - opens a proof that the given parameters actually conform - to the class specification. Note that the first proof step - is the @{method default} method, - which for such instance proofs maps to the @{method intro_classes} method. - This reduces an instance judgement to the relevant primitive - proof goals; typically it is the first method applied - in an instantiation proof. + \noindent @{command instantiation} defines class parameters at a + particular instance using common specification tools (here, + @{command definition}). The concluding @{command instance} opens a + proof that the given parameters actually conform to the class + specification. Note that the first proof step is the @{method + default} method, which for such instance proofs maps to the @{method + intro_classes} method. This reduces an instance judgement to the + relevant primitive proof goals; typically it is the first method + applied in an instantiation proof. - From now on, the type-checker will consider @{typ int} - as a @{class semigroup} automatically, i.e.\ any general results - are immediately available on concrete instances. + From now on, the type-checker will consider @{typ int} as a @{class + semigroup} automatically, i.e.\ any general results are immediately + available on concrete instances. - \medskip Another instance of @{class semigroup} yields the natural numbers: + \medskip Another instance of @{class semigroup} yields the natural + numbers: *} instantiation %quote nat :: semigroup @@ -177,21 +175,20 @@ end %quote text {* - \noindent Note the occurence of the name @{text mult_nat} - in the primrec declaration; by default, the local name of - a class operation @{text f} to be instantiated on type constructor - @{text \} is mangled as @{text f_\}. In case of uncertainty, - these names may be inspected using the @{command "print_context"} command - or the corresponding ProofGeneral button. + \noindent Note the occurence of the name @{text mult_nat} in the + primrec declaration; by default, the local name of a class operation + @{text f} to be instantiated on type constructor @{text \} is + mangled as @{text f_\}. In case of uncertainty, these names may be + inspected using the @{command "print_context"} command or the + corresponding ProofGeneral button. *} subsection {* Lifting and parametric types *} text {* - Overloaded definitions given at a class instantiation - may include recursion over the syntactic structure of types. - As a canonical example, we model product semigroups - using our simple algebra: + Overloaded definitions given at a class instantiation may include + recursion over the syntactic structure of types. As a canonical + example, we model product semigroups using our simple algebra: *} instantiation %quote prod :: (semigroup, semigroup) semigroup @@ -211,21 +208,19 @@ text {* \noindent Associativity of product semigroups is established using the definition of @{text "(\)"} on products and the hypothetical - associativity of the type components; these hypotheses - are legitimate due to the @{class semigroup} constraints imposed - on the type components by the @{command instance} proposition. - Indeed, this pattern often occurs with parametric types - and type classes. + associativity of the type components; these hypotheses are + legitimate due to the @{class semigroup} constraints imposed on the + type components by the @{command instance} proposition. Indeed, + this pattern often occurs with parametric types and type classes. *} subsection {* Subclassing *} text {* - We define a subclass @{text monoidl} (a semigroup with a left-hand neutral) - by extending @{class semigroup} - with one additional parameter @{text neutral} together - with its characteristic property: + We define a subclass @{text monoidl} (a semigroup with a left-hand + neutral) by extending @{class semigroup} with one additional + parameter @{text neutral} together with its characteristic property: *} class %quote monoidl = semigroup + @@ -233,10 +228,10 @@ assumes neutl: "\ \ x = x" text {* - \noindent Again, we prove some instances, by - providing suitable parameter definitions and proofs for the - additional specifications. Observe that instantiations - for types with the same arity may be simultaneous: + \noindent Again, we prove some instances, by providing suitable + parameter definitions and proofs for the additional specifications. + Observe that instantiations for types with the same arity may be + simultaneous: *} instantiation %quote nat and int :: monoidl @@ -309,8 +304,8 @@ end %quote text {* - \noindent To finish our small algebra example, we add a @{text group} class - with a corresponding instance: + \noindent To finish our small algebra example, we add a @{text + group} class with a corresponding instance: *} class %quote group = monoidl + @@ -338,9 +333,9 @@ subsection {* A look behind the scenes *} text {* - The example above gives an impression how Isar type classes work - in practice. As stated in the introduction, classes also provide - a link to Isar's locale system. Indeed, the logical core of a class + The example above gives an impression how Isar type classes work in + practice. As stated in the introduction, classes also provide a + link to Isar's locale system. Indeed, the logical core of a class is nothing other than a locale: *} @@ -402,13 +397,14 @@ qed text {* - \noindent Here the \qt{@{keyword "in"} @{class group}} target specification - indicates that the result is recorded within that context for later - use. This local theorem is also lifted to the global one @{fact - "group.left_cancel:"} @{prop [source] "\x y z \ \\group. x \ y = x \ - z \ y = z"}. Since type @{text "int"} has been made an instance of - @{text "group"} before, we may refer to that fact as well: @{prop - [source] "\x y z \ int. x \ y = x \ z \ y = z"}. + \noindent Here the \qt{@{keyword "in"} @{class group}} target + specification indicates that the result is recorded within that + context for later use. This local theorem is also lifted to the + global one @{fact "group.left_cancel:"} @{prop [source] "\x y z \ + \\group. x \ y = x \ z \ y = z"}. Since type @{text "int"} has been + made an instance of @{text "group"} before, we may refer to that + fact as well: @{prop [source] "\x y z \ int. x \ y = x \ z \ y = + z"}. *} @@ -424,15 +420,14 @@ text {* \noindent If the locale @{text group} is also a class, this local - definition is propagated onto a global definition of - @{term [source] "pow_nat \ nat \ \\monoid \ \\monoid"} - with corresponding theorems + definition is propagated onto a global definition of @{term [source] + "pow_nat \ nat \ \\monoid \ \\monoid"} with corresponding theorems @{thm pow_nat.simps [no_vars]}. - \noindent As you can see from this example, for local - definitions you may use any specification tool - which works together with locales, such as Krauss's recursive function package + \noindent As you can see from this example, for local definitions + you may use any specification tool which works together with + locales, such as Krauss's recursive function package \cite{krauss2006}. *} @@ -440,19 +435,17 @@ subsection {* A functor analogy *} text {* - We introduced Isar classes by analogy to type classes in - functional programming; if we reconsider this in the - context of what has been said about type classes and locales, - we can drive this analogy further by stating that type - classes essentially correspond to functors that have - a canonical interpretation as type classes. - There is also the possibility of other interpretations. - For example, @{text list}s also form a monoid with - @{text append} and @{term "[]"} as operations, but it - seems inappropriate to apply to lists - the same operations as for genuinely algebraic types. - In such a case, we can simply make a particular interpretation - of monoids for lists: + We introduced Isar classes by analogy to type classes in functional + programming; if we reconsider this in the context of what has been + said about type classes and locales, we can drive this analogy + further by stating that type classes essentially correspond to + functors that have a canonical interpretation as type classes. + There is also the possibility of other interpretations. For + example, @{text list}s also form a monoid with @{text append} and + @{term "[]"} as operations, but it seems inappropriate to apply to + lists the same operations as for genuinely algebraic types. In such + a case, we can simply make a particular interpretation of monoids + for lists: *} interpretation %quote list_monoid: monoid append "[]" @@ -510,12 +503,10 @@ qed text {* - The logical proof is carried out on the locale level. - Afterwards it is propagated - to the type system, making @{text group} an instance of - @{text monoid} by adding an additional edge - to the graph of subclass relations - (\figref{fig:subclass}). + The logical proof is carried out on the locale level. Afterwards it + is propagated to the type system, making @{text group} an instance + of @{text monoid} by adding an additional edge to the graph of + subclass relations (\figref{fig:subclass}). \begin{figure}[htbp] \begin{center} @@ -547,8 +538,8 @@ \end{center} \end{figure} - For illustration, a derived definition - in @{text group} using @{text pow_nat} + For illustration, a derived definition in @{text group} using @{text + pow_nat} *} definition %quote (in group) pow_int :: "int \ \ \ \" where @@ -557,17 +548,17 @@ else (pow_nat (nat (- k)) x)\
)" text {* - \noindent yields the global definition of - @{term [source] "pow_int \ int \ \\group \ \\group"} - with the corresponding theorem @{thm pow_int_def [no_vars]}. + \noindent yields the global definition of @{term [source] "pow_int \ + int \ \\group \ \\group"} with the corresponding theorem @{thm + pow_int_def [no_vars]}. *} subsection {* A note on syntax *} text {* - As a convenience, class context syntax allows references - to local class operations and their global counterparts - uniformly; type inference resolves ambiguities. For example: + As a convenience, class context syntax allows references to local + class operations and their global counterparts uniformly; type + inference resolves ambiguities. For example: *} context %quote semigroup @@ -581,11 +572,11 @@ term %quote "x \ y" -- {* example 3 *} text {* - \noindent Here in example 1, the term refers to the local class operation - @{text "mult [\]"}, whereas in example 2 the type constraint - enforces the global class operation @{text "mult [nat]"}. - In the global context in example 3, the reference is - to the polymorphic global class operation @{text "mult [?\ \ semigroup]"}. + \noindent Here in example 1, the term refers to the local class + operation @{text "mult [\]"}, whereas in example 2 the type + constraint enforces the global class operation @{text "mult [nat]"}. + In the global context in example 3, the reference is to the + polymorphic global class operation @{text "mult [?\ \ semigroup]"}. *} section {* Further issues *} @@ -593,16 +584,14 @@ subsection {* Type classes and code generation *} text {* - Turning back to the first motivation for type classes, - namely overloading, it is obvious that overloading - stemming from @{command class} statements and - @{command instantiation} - targets naturally maps to Haskell type classes. - The code generator framework \cite{isabelle-codegen} - takes this into account. If the target language (e.g.~SML) - lacks type classes, then they - are implemented by an explicit dictionary construction. - As example, let's go back to the power function: + Turning back to the first motivation for type classes, namely + overloading, it is obvious that overloading stemming from @{command + class} statements and @{command instantiation} targets naturally + maps to Haskell type classes. The code generator framework + \cite{isabelle-codegen} takes this into account. If the target + language (e.g.~SML) lacks type classes, then they are implemented by + an explicit dictionary construction. As example, let's go back to + the power function: *} definition %quote example :: int where @@ -619,11 +608,18 @@ *} text %quote {*@{code_stmts example (SML)}*} +text {* + \noindent In Scala, implicts are used as dictionaries: +*} +(*<*)code_include %invisible Scala "Natural" -(*>*) +text %quote {*@{code_stmts example (Scala)}*} + + subsection {* Inspecting the type class universe *} text {* - To facilitate orientation in complex subclass structures, - two diagnostics commands are provided: + To facilitate orientation in complex subclass structures, two + diagnostics commands are provided: \begin{description}