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\chapter{Introduction}
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A Haskell-style type-system \cite{haskell-report} with ordered type-classes
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has been present in Isabelle since 1991 already \cite{nipkow-sorts93}.
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Initially, classes have mainly served as a \emph{purely syntactic} tool to
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formulate polymorphic object-logics in a clean way, such as the standard
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Isabelle formulation of many-sorted FOL \cite{paulson-isa-book}.
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Applying classes at the \emph{logical level} to provide a simple notion of
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abstract theories and instantiations to concrete ones, has been long proposed
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as well \cite{nipkow-types93,nipkow-sorts93}. At that time, Isabelle still
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lacked built-in support for these \emph{axiomatic type classes}. More
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importantly, their semantics was not yet fully fleshed out (and unnecessarily
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complicated, too).
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Since Isabelle94, actual axiomatic type classes have been an integral part of
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Isabelle's meta-logic. This very simple implementation is based on a
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straight-forward extension of traditional simply-typed Higher-Order Logic, by
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including types qualified by logical predicates and overloaded constant
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definitions (see \cite{Wenzel:1997:TPHOL} for further details).
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Yet even until Isabelle99, there used to be still a fundamental methodological
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problem in using axiomatic type classes conveniently, due to the traditional
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distinction of Isabelle theory files vs.\ ML proof scripts. This has been
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finally overcome with the advent of Isabelle/Isar theories
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\cite{isabelle-isar-ref}: now definitions and proofs may be freely intermixed.
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This nicely accommodates the usual procedure of defining axiomatic type
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classes, proving abstract properties, defining operations on concrete types,
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proving concrete properties for instantiation of classes etc.
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\medskip
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So to cut a long story short, the present version of axiomatic type classes
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now provides an even more useful and convenient mechanism for light-weight
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abstract theories, without any special technical provisions to be observed by
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the user.
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\chapter{Examples}\label{sec:ex}
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Axiomatic type classes are a concept of Isabelle's meta-logic
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\cite{paulson-isa-book,Wenzel:1997:TPHOL}. They may be applied to any
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object-logic that directly uses the meta type system, such as Isabelle/HOL
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\cite{isabelle-HOL}. Subsequently, we present various examples that are all
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formulated within HOL, except the one of \secref{sec:ex-natclass} which is in
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FOL. See also \url{http://isabelle.in.tum.de/library/HOL/AxClasses/} and
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\url{http://isabelle.in.tum.de/library/FOL/ex/NatClass.html}.
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\input{generated/Semigroups}
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\input{generated/Group}
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\input{generated/Product}
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\input{generated/NatClass}
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%% FIXME move some parts to ref or isar-ref manual (!?);
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% \chapter{The user interface of Isabelle's axclass package}
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% The actual axiomatic type class package of Isabelle/Pure mainly consists
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% of two new theory sections: \texttt{axclass} and \texttt{instance}. Some
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% typical applications of these have already been demonstrated in
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% \secref{sec:ex}, below their syntax and semantics are presented more
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% completely.
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% \section{The axclass section}
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% Within theory files, \texttt{axclass} introduces an axiomatic type class
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% definition. Its concrete syntax is:
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% \begin{matharray}{l}
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% \texttt{axclass} \\
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% \ \ c \texttt{ < } c@1\texttt, \ldots\texttt, c@n \\
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% \ \ id@1\ axm@1 \\
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% \ \ \vdots \\
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% \ \ id@m\ axm@m
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% \emphnd{matharray}
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% Where $c, c@1, \ldots, c@n$ are classes (category $id$ or
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% $string$) and $axm@1, \ldots, axm@m$ (with $m \geq
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% 0$) are formulas (category $string$).
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% Class $c$ has to be new, and sort $\{c@1, \ldots, c@n\}$ a subsort of
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% \texttt{logic}. Each class axiom $axm@j$ may contain any term
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% variables, but at most one type variable (which need not be the same
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% for all axioms). The sort of this type variable has to be a supersort
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% of $\{c@1, \ldots, c@n\}$.
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% \medskip
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% The \texttt{axclass} section declares $c$ as subclass of $c@1, \ldots,
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% c@n$ to the type signature.
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% Furthermore, $axm@1, \ldots, axm@m$ are turned into the
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% ``abstract axioms'' of $c$ with names $id@1, \ldots,
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% id@m$. This is done by replacing all occurring type variables
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% by $\alpha :: c$. Original axioms that do not contain any type
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% variable will be prefixed by the logical precondition
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% $\texttt{OFCLASS}(\alpha :: \texttt{logic}, c\texttt{_class})$.
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% Another axiom of name $c\texttt{I}$ --- the ``class $c$ introduction
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% rule'' --- is built from the respective universal closures of
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% $axm@1, \ldots, axm@m$ appropriately.
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% \section{The instance section}
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% Section \texttt{instance} proves class inclusions or type arities at the
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% logical level and then transfers these into the type signature.
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% Its concrete syntax is:
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% \begin{matharray}{l}
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% \texttt{instance} \\
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% \ \ [\ c@1 \texttt{ < } c@2 \ |\
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% t \texttt{ ::\ (}sort@1\texttt, \ldots \texttt, sort@n\texttt) sort\ ] \\
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% \ \ [\ \texttt(name@1 \texttt, \ldots\texttt, name@m\texttt)\ ] \\
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% \ \ [\ \texttt{\{|} text \texttt{|\}}\ ]
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% \emphnd{matharray}
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% Where $c@1, c@2$ are classes and $t$ is an $n$-place type constructor
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% (all of category $id$ or $string)$. Furthermore,
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% $sort@i$ are sorts in the usual Isabelle-syntax.
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% \medskip
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% Internally, \texttt{instance} first sets up an appropriate goal that
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% expresses the class inclusion or type arity as a meta-proposition.
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% Then tactic \texttt{AxClass.axclass_tac} is applied with all preceding
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% meta-definitions of the current theory file and the user-supplied
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% witnesses. The latter are $name@1, \ldots, name@m$, where
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% $id$ refers to an \ML-name of a theorem, and $string$ to an
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% axiom of the current theory node\footnote{Thus, the user may reference
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% axioms from above this \texttt{instance} in the theory file. Note
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% that new axioms appear at the \ML-toplevel only after the file is
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% processed completely.}.
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% Tactic \texttt{AxClass.axclass_tac} first unfolds the class definition by
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% resolving with rule $c\texttt\texttt{I}$, and then applies the witnesses
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% according to their form: Meta-definitions are unfolded, all other
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% formulas are repeatedly resolved\footnote{This is done in a way that
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% enables proper object-\emph{rules} to be used as witnesses for
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% corresponding class axioms.} with.
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% The final optional argument $text$ is \ML-code of an arbitrary
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% user tactic which is applied last to any remaining goals.
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% \medskip
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% Because of the complexity of \texttt{instance}'s witnessing mechanisms,
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% new users of the axclass package are advised to only use the simple
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% form $\texttt{instance}\ \ldots\ (id@1, \ldots, id@!m)$, where
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% the identifiers refer to theorems that are appropriate type instances
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% of the class axioms. This typically requires an auxiliary theory,
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% though, which defines some constants and then proves these witnesses.
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%%% Local Variables:
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%%% mode: latex
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%%% TeX-master: "axclass"
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%%% End:
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% LocalWords: Isabelle FOL
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