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% $Id$
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Until now, our numerical have used the type of \textbf{natural numbers},
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\isa{nat}. This is a recursive datatype generated by the constructors
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zero and successor, so it works well with inductive proofs and primitive
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recursive function definitions. Isabelle/HOL also provides the type
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\isa{int} of \textbf{integers}, which lack induction but support true
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subtraction. The logic HOL-Real also has the type \isa{real} of real
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numbers. Isabelle has no subtyping, so the numeric types are distinct and
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there are functions to convert between them. Fortunately most numeric
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operations are overloaded: the same symbol can be used at all numeric types.
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Table~\ref{tab:overloading} in the appendix shows the most important operations,
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together with the priorities of the infix symbols.
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The integers are preferable to the natural numbers for reasoning about
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complicated arithmetic expressions. For example, a termination proof
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typically involves an integer metric that is shown to decrease at each
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loop iteration. Even if the metric cannot become negative, proofs
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may be easier if you use the integers instead of the natural
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numbers.
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Many theorems involving numeric types can be proved automatically by
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Isabelle's arithmetic decision procedure, the method
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\isa{arith}. Linear arithmetic comprises addition, subtraction
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and multiplication by constant factors; subterms involving other operators
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are regarded as variables. The procedure can be slow, especially if the
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subgoal to be proved involves subtraction over type \isa{nat}, which
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causes case splits.
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The simplifier reduces arithmetic expressions in other
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ways, such as dividing through by common factors. For problems that lie
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outside the scope of automation, HOL provides hundreds of
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theorems about multiplication, division, etc., that can be brought to
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bear. You can locate them using Proof General's Find
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button. A few lemmas are given below to show what
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is available.
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\subsection{Numeric Literals}
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\label{sec:numerals}
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Literals are available for the types of natural numbers, integers
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and reals and denote integer values of arbitrary size.
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They begin
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with a number sign (\isa{\#}), have an optional minus sign (\isa{-}) and
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then one or more decimal digits. Examples are \isa{\#0}, \isa{\#-3}
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and \isa{\#441223334678}.
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Literals look like constants, but they abbreviate
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terms, representing the number in a two's complement binary notation.
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Isabelle performs arithmetic on literals by rewriting rather
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than using the hardware arithmetic. In most cases arithmetic
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is fast enough, even for large numbers. The arithmetic operations
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provided for literals include addition, subtraction, multiplication,
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integer division and remainder. Fractions of literals (expressed using
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division) are reduced to lowest terms.
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\begin{warn}
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The arithmetic operators are
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overloaded, so you must be careful to ensure that each numeric
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expression refers to a specific type, if necessary by inserting
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type constraints. Here is an example of what can go wrong:
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\par
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\begin{isabelle}
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\isacommand{lemma}\ "\#2\ *\ m\ =\ m\ +\ m"
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\end{isabelle}
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%
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Carefully observe how Isabelle displays the subgoal:
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\begin{isabelle}
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\ 1.\ (\#2::'a)\ *\ m\ =\ m\ +\ m
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\end{isabelle}
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The type \isa{'a} given for the literal \isa{\#2} warns us that no numeric
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type has been specified. The problem is underspecified. Given a type
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constraint such as \isa{nat}, \isa{int} or \isa{real}, it becomes trivial.
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\end{warn}
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\begin{warn}
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Numeric literals are not constructors and therefore must not be used in
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patterns. For example, this declaration is rejected:
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\begin{isabelle}
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\isacommand{recdef}\ h\ "\isacharbraceleft \isacharbraceright "\isanewline
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h\ \#3\ =\ \#2\isanewline
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h\ i\ \ =\ i
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\end{isabelle}
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You should use a conditional expression instead:
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\begin{isabelle}
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"h\ i\ =\ (if\ i\ =\ \#3\ then\ \#2\ else\ i)"
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\end{isabelle}
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\end{warn}
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\subsection{The type of natural numbers, {\tt\slshape nat}}
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This type requires no introduction: we have been using it from the
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beginning. Hundreds of theorems about the natural numbers are
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proved in the theories \isa{Nat}, \isa{NatArith} and \isa{Divides}. Only
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in exceptional circumstances should you resort to induction.
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\subsubsection{Literals}
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The notational options for the natural numbers can be confusing. The
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constant \isa{0} is overloaded to serve as the neutral value
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in a variety of additive types. The symbols \isa{1} and \isa{2} are
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not constants but abbreviations for \isa{Suc 0} and \isa{Suc(Suc 0)},
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respectively. The literals \isa{\#0}, \isa{\#1} and \isa{\#2} are
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syntactically different from \isa{0}, \isa{1} and \isa{2}. You will
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sometimes prefer one notation to the other. Literals are obviously
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necessary to express large values, while \isa{0} and \isa{Suc} are needed
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in order to match many theorems, including the rewrite rules for primitive
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recursive functions. The following default simplification rules replace
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small literals by zero and successor:
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\begin{isabelle}
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\#0\ =\ 0
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\rulename{numeral_0_eq_0}\isanewline
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\#1\ =\ 1
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\rulename{numeral_1_eq_1}\isanewline
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\#2\ +\ n\ =\ Suc\ (Suc\ n)
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\rulename{add_2_eq_Suc}\isanewline
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n\ +\ \#2\ =\ Suc\ (Suc\ n)
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\rulename{add_2_eq_Suc'}
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\end{isabelle}
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In special circumstances, you may wish to remove or reorient
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these rules.
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\subsubsection{Typical lemmas}
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Inequalities involving addition and subtraction alone can be proved
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automatically. Lemmas such as these can be used to prove inequalities
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involving multiplication and division:
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\begin{isabelle}
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\isasymlbrakk i\ \isasymle \ j;\ k\ \isasymle \ l\isasymrbrakk \ \isasymLongrightarrow \ i\ *\ k\ \isasymle \ j\ *\ l%
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\rulename{mult_le_mono}\isanewline
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\isasymlbrakk i\ <\ j;\ 0\ <\ k\isasymrbrakk \ \isasymLongrightarrow \ i\
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*\ k\ <\ j\ *\ k%
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\rulename{mult_less_mono1}\isanewline
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m\ \isasymle \ n\ \isasymLongrightarrow \ m\ div\ k\ \isasymle \ n\ div\ k%
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\rulename{div_le_mono}
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\end{isabelle}
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%
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Various distributive laws concerning multiplication are available:
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\begin{isabelle}
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(m\ +\ n)\ *\ k\ =\ m\ *\ k\ +\ n\ *\ k%
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\rulename{add_mult_distrib}\isanewline
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(m\ -\ n)\ *\ k\ =\ m\ *\ k\ -\ n\ *\ k%
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\rulename{diff_mult_distrib}\isanewline
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(m\ mod\ n)\ *\ k\ =\ (m\ *\ k)\ mod\ (n\ *\ k)
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\rulename{mod_mult_distrib}
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\end{isabelle}
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\subsubsection{Division}
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The infix operators \isa{div} and \isa{mod} are overloaded.
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Isabelle/HOL provides the basic facts about quotient and remainder
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on the natural numbers:
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\begin{isabelle}
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m\ mod\ n\ =\ (if\ m\ <\ n\ then\ m\ else\ (m\ -\ n)\ mod\ n)
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\rulename{mod_if}\isanewline
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m\ div\ n\ *\ n\ +\ m\ mod\ n\ =\ m%
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\rulename{mod_div_equality}
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\end{isabelle}
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Many less obvious facts about quotient and remainder are also provided.
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Here is a selection:
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\begin{isabelle}
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a\ *\ b\ div\ c\ =\ a\ *\ (b\ div\ c)\ +\ a\ *\ (b\ mod\ c)\ div\ c%
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\rulename{div_mult1_eq}\isanewline
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a\ *\ b\ mod\ c\ =\ a\ *\ (b\ mod\ c)\ mod\ c%
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\rulename{mod_mult1_eq}\isanewline
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a\ div\ (b*c)\ =\ a\ div\ b\ div\ c%
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\rulename{div_mult2_eq}\isanewline
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a\ mod\ (b*c)\ =\ b * (a\ div\ b\ mod\ c)\ +\ a\ mod\ b%
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\rulename{mod_mult2_eq}\isanewline
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0\ <\ c\ \isasymLongrightarrow \ (c\ *\ a)\ div\ (c\ *\ b)\ =\ a\ div\ b%
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\rulename{div_mult_mult1}
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\end{isabelle}
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Surprisingly few of these results depend upon the
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divisors' being nonzero. That is because division by
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zero yields zero:
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\begin{isabelle}
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a\ div\ 0\ =\ 0
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\rulename{DIVISION_BY_ZERO_DIV}\isanewline
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a\ mod\ 0\ =\ a%
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\rulename{DIVISION_BY_ZERO_MOD}
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\end{isabelle}
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As a concession to convention, these equations are not installed as default
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simplification rules but are merely used to remove nonzero-divisor
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hypotheses by case analysis. In \isa{div_mult_mult1} above, one of
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the two divisors (namely~\isa{c}) must be still be nonzero.
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The \textbf{divides} relation has the standard definition, which
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is overloaded over all numeric types:
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\begin{isabelle}
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m\ dvd\ n\ \isasymequiv\ {\isasymexists}k.\ n\ =\ m\ *\ k
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\rulename{dvd_def}
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\end{isabelle}
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%
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Section~\ref{sec:proving-euclid} discusses proofs involving this
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relation. Here are some of the facts proved about it:
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\begin{isabelle}
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\isasymlbrakk m\ dvd\ n;\ n\ dvd\ m\isasymrbrakk \ \isasymLongrightarrow \ m\ =\ n%
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\rulename{dvd_anti_sym}\isanewline
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\isasymlbrakk k\ dvd\ m;\ k\ dvd\ n\isasymrbrakk \ \isasymLongrightarrow \ k\ dvd\ (m\ +\ n)
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\rulename{dvd_add}
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\end{isabelle}
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\subsubsection{Simplifier tricks}
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The rule \isa{diff_mult_distrib} shown above is one of the few facts
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about \isa{m\ -\ n} that is not subject to
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the condition \isa{n\ \isasymle \ m}. Natural number subtraction has few
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nice properties; often you should remove it by simplifying with this split
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rule:
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\begin{isabelle}
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P(a-b)\ =\ ((a<b\ \isasymlongrightarrow \ P\
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0)\ \isasymand \ (\isasymforall d.\ a\ =\ b+d\ \isasymlongrightarrow \ P\
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d))
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\rulename{nat_diff_split}
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\end{isabelle}
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For example, it proves the following fact, which lies outside the scope of
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linear arithmetic:
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\begin{isabelle}
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\isacommand{lemma}\ "(n-1)*(n+1)\ =\ n*n\ -\ 1"\isanewline
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\isacommand{apply}\ (simp\ split:\ nat_diff_split)\isanewline
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\isacommand{done}
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\end{isabelle}
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Suppose that two expressions are equal, differing only in
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associativity and commutativity of addition. Simplifying with the
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following equations sorts the terms and groups them to the right, making
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the two expressions identical:
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\begin{isabelle}
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m\ +\ n\ +\ k\ =\ m\ +\ (n\ +\ k)
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\rulename{add_assoc}\isanewline
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m\ +\ n\ =\ n\ +\ m%
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\rulename{add_commute}\isanewline
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x\ +\ (y\ +\ z)\ =\ y\ +\ (x\
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+\ z)
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\rulename{add_left_commute}
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\end{isabelle}
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The name \isa{add_ac} refers to the list of all three theorems, similarly
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there is \isa{mult_ac}. Here is an example of the sorting effect. Start
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with this goal:
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\begin{isabelle}
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\ 1.\ Suc\ (i\ +\ j\ *\ l\ *\ k\ +\ m\ *\ n)\ =\
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f\ (n\ *\ m\ +\ i\ +\ k\ *\ j\ *\ l)
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\end{isabelle}
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%
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Simplify using \isa{add_ac} and \isa{mult_ac}:
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\begin{isabelle}
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\isacommand{apply}\ (simp\ add:\ add_ac\ mult_ac)
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\end{isabelle}
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%
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Here is the resulting subgoal:
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\begin{isabelle}
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\ 1.\ Suc\ (i\ +\ (m\ *\ n\ +\ j\ *\ (k\ *\ l)))\
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=\ f\ (i\ +\ (m\ *\ n\ +\ j\ *\ (k\ *\ l)))%
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\end{isabelle}
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\subsection{The type of integers, {\tt\slshape int}}
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Reasoning methods resemble those for the natural numbers, but induction and
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the constant \isa{Suc} are not available. HOL provides many lemmas
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for proving inequalities involving integer multiplication and division,
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similar to those shown above for type~\isa{nat}.
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The absolute value function \isa{abs} is overloaded for the numeric types.
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It is defined for the integers; we have for example the obvious law
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\begin{isabelle}
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\isasymbar x\ *\ y\isasymbar \ =\ \isasymbar x\isasymbar \ *\ \isasymbar y\isasymbar
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\rulename{abs_mult}
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\end{isabelle}
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\begin{warn}
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The absolute value bars shown above cannot be typed on a keyboard. They
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can be entered using the X-symbol package. In ASCII, type \isa{abs x} to
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get \isa{\isasymbar x\isasymbar}.
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\end{warn}
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The \isa{arith} method can prove facts about \isa{abs} automatically,
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though as it does so by case analysis, the cost can be exponential.
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\begin{isabelle}
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\isacommand{lemma}\ "\isasymlbrakk abs\ x\ <\ a;\ abs\ y\ <\ b\isasymrbrakk \ \isasymLongrightarrow \ abs\ x\ +\ abs\ y\ <\ (a\ +\ b\ ::\ int)"\isanewline
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\isacommand{by}\ arith
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\end{isabelle}
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Concerning simplifier tricks, we have no need to eliminate subtraction: it
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is well-behaved. As with the natural numbers, the simplifier can sort the
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operands of sums and products. The name \isa{zadd_ac} refers to the
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associativity and commutativity theorems for integer addition, while
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\isa{zmult_ac} has the analogous theorems for multiplication. The
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prefix~\isa{z} in many theorem names recalls the use of $\mathbb{Z}$ to
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denote the set of integers.
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For division and remainder, the treatment of negative divisors follows
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mathematical practice: the sign of the remainder follows that
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of the divisor:
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\begin{isabelle}
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\#0\ <\ b\ \isasymLongrightarrow \ \#0\ \isasymle \ a\ mod\ b%
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\rulename{pos_mod_sign}\isanewline
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\#0\ <\ b\ \isasymLongrightarrow \ a\ mod\ b\ <\ b%
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\rulename{pos_mod_bound}\isanewline
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b\ <\ \#0\ \isasymLongrightarrow \ a\ mod\ b\ \isasymle \ \#0
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\rulename{neg_mod_sign}\isanewline
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b\ <\ \#0\ \isasymLongrightarrow \ b\ <\ a\ mod\ b%
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\rulename{neg_mod_bound}
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\end{isabelle}
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ML treats negative divisors in the same way, but most computer hardware
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treats signed operands using the same rules as for multiplication.
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Many facts about quotients and remainders are provided:
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\begin{isabelle}
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(a\ +\ b)\ div\ c\ =\isanewline
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a\ div\ c\ +\ b\ div\ c\ +\ (a\ mod\ c\ +\ b\ mod\ c)\ div\ c%
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\rulename{zdiv_zadd1_eq}
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\par\smallskip
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(a\ +\ b)\ mod\ c\ =\ (a\ mod\ c\ +\ b\ mod\ c)\ mod\ c%
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\rulename{zmod_zadd1_eq}
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\end{isabelle}
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\begin{isabelle}
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(a\ *\ b)\ div\ c\ =\ a\ *\ (b\ div\ c)\ +\ a\ *\ (b\ mod\ c)\ div\ c%
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\rulename{zdiv_zmult1_eq}\isanewline
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(a\ *\ b)\ mod\ c\ =\ a\ *\ (b\ mod\ c)\ mod\ c%
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\rulename{zmod_zmult1_eq}
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\end{isabelle}
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\begin{isabelle}
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\#0\ <\ c\ \isasymLongrightarrow \ a\ div\ (b*c)\ =\ a\ div\ b\ div\ c%
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\rulename{zdiv_zmult2_eq}\isanewline
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\#0\ <\ c\ \isasymLongrightarrow \ a\ mod\ (b*c)\ =\ b*(a\ div\ b\ mod\
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c)\ +\ a\ mod\ b%
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\rulename{zmod_zmult2_eq}
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\end{isabelle}
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The last two differ from their natural number analogues by requiring
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\isa{c} to be positive. Since division by zero yields zero, we could allow
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\isa{c} to be zero. However, \isa{c} cannot be negative: a counterexample
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is
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$\isa{a} = 7$, $\isa{b} = 2$ and $\isa{c} = -3$, when the left-hand side of
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\isa{zdiv_zmult2_eq} is $-2$ while the right-hand side is~$-1$.
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\subsection{The type of real numbers, {\tt\slshape real}}
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The real numbers enjoy two significant properties that the integers lack.
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They are
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\textbf{dense}: between every two distinct real numbers there lies another.
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This property follows from the division laws, since if $x<y$ then between
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them lies $(x+y)/2$. The second property is that they are
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\textbf{complete}: every set of reals that is bounded above has a least
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upper bound. Completeness distinguishes the reals from the rationals, for
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which the set $\{x\mid x^2<2\}$ has no least upper bound. (It could only be
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$\surd2$, which is irrational.)
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The formalization of completeness is complicated; rather than
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reproducing it here, we refer you to the theory \texttt{RComplete} in
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directory \texttt{Real}.
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Density, however, is trivial to express:
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\begin{isabelle}
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x\ <\ y\ \isasymLongrightarrow \ \isasymexists r.\ x\ <\ r\ \isasymand \ r\ <\ y%
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\rulename{real_dense}
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\end{isabelle}
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Here is a selection of rules about the division operator. The following
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are installed as default simplification rules in order to express
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combinations of products and quotients as rational expressions:
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\begin{isabelle}
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x\ *\ (y\ /\ z)\ =\ x\ *\ y\ /\ z%
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\rulename{real_times_divide1_eq}\isanewline
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y\ /\ z\ *\ x\ =\ y\ *\ x\ /\ z%
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\rulename{real_times_divide2_eq}\isanewline
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x\ /\ (y\ /\ z)\ =\ x\ *\ z\ /\ y%
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\rulename{real_divide_divide1_eq}\isanewline
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x\ /\ y\ /\ z\ =\ x\ /\ (y\ *\ z)
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\rulename{real_divide_divide2_eq}
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\end{isabelle}
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Signs are extracted from quotients in the hope that complementary terms can
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then be cancelled:
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\begin{isabelle}
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-\ x\ /\ y\ =\ -\ (x\ /\ y)
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\rulename{real_minus_divide_eq}\isanewline
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x\ /\ -\ y\ =\ -\ (x\ /\ y)
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\rulename{real_divide_minus_eq}
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\end{isabelle}
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The following distributive law is available, but it is not installed as a
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simplification rule.
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\begin{isabelle}
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(x\ +\ y)\ /\ z\ =\ x\ /\ z\ +\ y\ /\ z%
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\rulename{real_add_divide_distrib}
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\end{isabelle}
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As with the other numeric types, the simplifier can sort the operands of
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addition and multiplication. The name \isa{real_add_ac} refers to the
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associativity and commutativity theorems for addition, while similarly
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\isa{real_mult_ac} contains those properties for multiplication.
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The absolute value function \isa{abs} is
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defined for the reals, along with many theorems such as this one about
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|
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exponentiation:
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\begin{isabelle}
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|
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\isasymbar r\isasymbar \ \isacharcircum \ n\ =\ \isasymbar r\ \isacharcircum \ n\isasymbar
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|
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\rulename{realpow_abs}
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|
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\end{isabelle}
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|
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|
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\begin{warn}
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|
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Type \isa{real} is only available in the logic HOL-Real, which
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|
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is HOL extended with the rather substantial development of the real
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|
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numbers. Base your theory upon theory \isa{Real}, not the usual \isa{Main}.
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|
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\end{warn}
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|
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|
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Also distributed with Isabelle is HOL-Hyperreal,
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|
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whose theory \isa{Hyperreal} defines the type \isa{hypreal} of non-standard
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|
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reals. These
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|
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\textbf{hyperreals} include infinitesimals, which represent infinitely
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|
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small and infinitely large quantities; they facilitate proofs
|
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|
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about limits, differentiation and integration~\cite{fleuriot-jcm}. The
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|
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development defines an infinitely large number, \isa{omega} and an
|
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|
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infinitely small positive number, \isa{epsilon}. The
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|
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relation $x\approx y$ means ``$x$ is infinitely close to~$y$''.
|