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%
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\begin{isabellebody}%
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\def\isabellecontext{Partial}%
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\isamarkupfalse%
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%
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\begin{isamarkuptext}%
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\noindent Throughout this tutorial, we have emphasized
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that all functions in HOL are total. We cannot hope to define
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truly partial functions, but must make them total. A straightforward
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method is to lift the result type of the function from $\tau$ to
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$\tau$~\isa{option} (see \ref{sec:option}), where \isa{None} is
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returned if the function is applied to an argument not in its
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domain. Function \isa{assoc} in \S\ref{sec:Trie} is a simple example.
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We do not pursue this schema further because it should be clear
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how it works. Its main drawback is that the result of such a lifted
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function has to be unpacked first before it can be processed
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further. Its main advantage is that you can distinguish if the
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function was applied to an argument in its domain or not. If you do
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not need to make this distinction, for example because the function is
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never used outside its domain, it is easier to work with
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\emph{underdefined}\index{functions!underdefined} functions: for
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certain arguments we only know that a result exists, but we do not
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know what it is. When defining functions that are normally considered
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partial, underdefinedness turns out to be a very reasonable
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alternative.
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We have already seen an instance of underdefinedness by means of
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non-exhaustive pattern matching: the definition of \isa{last} in
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\S\ref{sec:recdef-examples}. The same is allowed for \isacommand{primrec}%
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\end{isamarkuptext}%
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\isamarkuptrue%
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\isacommand{consts}\ hd\ {\isacharcolon}{\isacharcolon}\ {\isachardoublequote}{\isacharprime}a\ list\ {\isasymRightarrow}\ {\isacharprime}a{\isachardoublequote}\isanewline
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\isamarkupfalse%
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\isacommand{primrec}\ {\isachardoublequote}hd\ {\isacharparenleft}x{\isacharhash}xs{\isacharparenright}\ {\isacharequal}\ x{\isachardoublequote}\isamarkupfalse%
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%
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\begin{isamarkuptext}%
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\noindent
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although it generates a warning.
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Even ordinary definitions allow underdefinedness, this time by means of
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preconditions:%
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\end{isamarkuptext}%
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\isamarkuptrue%
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\isacommand{constdefs}\ minus\ {\isacharcolon}{\isacharcolon}\ {\isachardoublequote}nat\ {\isasymRightarrow}\ nat\ {\isasymRightarrow}\ nat{\isachardoublequote}\isanewline
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{\isachardoublequote}n\ {\isasymle}\ m\ {\isasymLongrightarrow}\ minus\ m\ n\ {\isasymequiv}\ m\ {\isacharminus}\ n{\isachardoublequote}\isamarkupfalse%
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%
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\begin{isamarkuptext}%
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The rest of this section is devoted to the question of how to define
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partial recursive functions by other means than non-exhaustive pattern
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matching.%
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\end{isamarkuptext}%
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\isamarkuptrue%
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%
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\isamarkupsubsubsection{Guarded Recursion%
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}
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\isamarkuptrue%
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%
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\begin{isamarkuptext}%
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\index{recursion!guarded}%
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Neither \isacommand{primrec} nor \isacommand{recdef} allow to
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prefix an equation with a condition in the way ordinary definitions do
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(see \isa{minus} above). Instead we have to move the condition over
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to the right-hand side of the equation. Given a partial function $f$
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that should satisfy the recursion equation $f(x) = t$ over its domain
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$dom(f)$, we turn this into the \isacommand{recdef}
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\begin{isabelle}%
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\ \ \ \ \ f\ x\ {\isacharequal}\ {\isacharparenleft}if\ x\ {\isasymin}\ dom\ f\ then\ t\ else\ arbitrary{\isacharparenright}%
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\end{isabelle}
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where \isa{arbitrary} is a predeclared constant of type \isa{{\isacharprime}a}
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which has no definition. Thus we know nothing about its value,
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which is ideal for specifying underdefined functions on top of it.
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As a simple example we define division on \isa{nat}:%
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\end{isamarkuptext}%
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\isamarkuptrue%
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\isacommand{consts}\ divi\ {\isacharcolon}{\isacharcolon}\ {\isachardoublequote}nat\ {\isasymtimes}\ nat\ {\isasymRightarrow}\ nat{\isachardoublequote}\isanewline
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\isamarkupfalse%
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\isacommand{recdef}\ {\isacharparenleft}\isakeyword{permissive}{\isacharparenright}\ divi\ {\isachardoublequote}measure{\isacharparenleft}{\isasymlambda}{\isacharparenleft}m{\isacharcomma}n{\isacharparenright}{\isachardot}\ m{\isacharparenright}{\isachardoublequote}\isanewline
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\ \ {\isachardoublequote}divi{\isacharparenleft}m{\isacharcomma}n{\isacharparenright}\ {\isacharequal}\ {\isacharparenleft}if\ n\ {\isacharequal}\ {\isadigit{0}}\ then\ arbitrary\ else\isanewline
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\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ if\ m\ {\isacharless}\ n\ then\ {\isadigit{0}}\ else\ divi{\isacharparenleft}m{\isacharminus}n{\isacharcomma}n{\isacharparenright}{\isacharplus}{\isadigit{1}}{\isacharparenright}{\isachardoublequote}\isamarkupfalse%
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%
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\begin{isamarkuptext}%
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\noindent Of course we could also have defined
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\isa{divi\ {\isacharparenleft}m{\isacharcomma}\ {\isadigit{0}}{\isacharparenright}} to be some specific number, for example 0. The
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latter option is chosen for the predefined \isa{div} function, which
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simplifies proofs at the expense of deviating from the
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standard mathematical division function.
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As a more substantial example we consider the problem of searching a graph.
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For simplicity our graph is given by a function \isa{f} of
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type \isa{{\isacharprime}a\ {\isasymRightarrow}\ {\isacharprime}a} which
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maps each node to its successor; the graph is really a tree.
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The task is to find the end of a chain, modelled by a node pointing to
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itself. Here is a first attempt:
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\begin{isabelle}%
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\ \ \ \ \ find\ {\isacharparenleft}f{\isacharcomma}\ x{\isacharparenright}\ {\isacharequal}\ {\isacharparenleft}if\ f\ x\ {\isacharequal}\ x\ then\ x\ else\ find\ {\isacharparenleft}f{\isacharcomma}\ f\ x{\isacharparenright}{\isacharparenright}%
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\end{isabelle}
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This may be viewed as a fixed point finder or as one half of the well known
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\emph{Union-Find} algorithm.
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The snag is that it may not terminate if \isa{f} has non-trivial cycles.
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Phrased differently, the relation%
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\end{isamarkuptext}%
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\isamarkuptrue%
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\isacommand{constdefs}\ step{\isadigit{1}}\ {\isacharcolon}{\isacharcolon}\ {\isachardoublequote}{\isacharparenleft}{\isacharprime}a\ {\isasymRightarrow}\ {\isacharprime}a{\isacharparenright}\ {\isasymRightarrow}\ {\isacharparenleft}{\isacharprime}a\ {\isasymtimes}\ {\isacharprime}a{\isacharparenright}set{\isachardoublequote}\isanewline
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\ \ {\isachardoublequote}step{\isadigit{1}}\ f\ {\isasymequiv}\ {\isacharbraceleft}{\isacharparenleft}y{\isacharcomma}x{\isacharparenright}{\isachardot}\ y\ {\isacharequal}\ f\ x\ {\isasymand}\ y\ {\isasymnoteq}\ x{\isacharbraceright}{\isachardoublequote}\isamarkupfalse%
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%
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\begin{isamarkuptext}%
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\noindent
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must be well-founded. Thus we make the following definition:%
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\end{isamarkuptext}%
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\isamarkuptrue%
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\isacommand{consts}\ find\ {\isacharcolon}{\isacharcolon}\ {\isachardoublequote}{\isacharparenleft}{\isacharprime}a\ {\isasymRightarrow}\ {\isacharprime}a{\isacharparenright}\ {\isasymtimes}\ {\isacharprime}a\ {\isasymRightarrow}\ {\isacharprime}a{\isachardoublequote}\isanewline
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\isamarkupfalse%
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\isacommand{recdef}\ find\ {\isachardoublequote}same{\isacharunderscore}fst\ {\isacharparenleft}{\isasymlambda}f{\isachardot}\ wf{\isacharparenleft}step{\isadigit{1}}\ f{\isacharparenright}{\isacharparenright}\ step{\isadigit{1}}{\isachardoublequote}\isanewline
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\ \ {\isachardoublequote}find{\isacharparenleft}f{\isacharcomma}x{\isacharparenright}\ {\isacharequal}\ {\isacharparenleft}if\ wf{\isacharparenleft}step{\isadigit{1}}\ f{\isacharparenright}\isanewline
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\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ then\ if\ f\ x\ {\isacharequal}\ x\ then\ x\ else\ find{\isacharparenleft}f{\isacharcomma}\ f\ x{\isacharparenright}\isanewline
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\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ else\ arbitrary{\isacharparenright}{\isachardoublequote}\isanewline
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{\isacharparenleft}\isakeyword{hints}\ recdef{\isacharunderscore}simp{\isacharcolon}\ step{\isadigit{1}}{\isacharunderscore}def{\isacharparenright}\isamarkupfalse%
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%
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\begin{isamarkuptext}%
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\noindent
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The recursion equation itself should be clear enough: it is our aborted
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first attempt augmented with a check that there are no non-trivial loops.
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To express the required well-founded relation we employ the
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predefined combinator \isa{same{\isacharunderscore}fst} of type
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\begin{isabelle}%
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\ \ \ \ \ {\isacharparenleft}{\isacharprime}a\ {\isasymRightarrow}\ bool{\isacharparenright}\ {\isasymRightarrow}\ {\isacharparenleft}{\isacharprime}a\ {\isasymRightarrow}\ {\isacharparenleft}{\isacharprime}b{\isasymtimes}{\isacharprime}b{\isacharparenright}set{\isacharparenright}\ {\isasymRightarrow}\ {\isacharparenleft}{\isacharparenleft}{\isacharprime}a{\isasymtimes}{\isacharprime}b{\isacharparenright}\ {\isasymtimes}\ {\isacharparenleft}{\isacharprime}a{\isasymtimes}{\isacharprime}b{\isacharparenright}{\isacharparenright}set%
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\end{isabelle}
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defined as
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\begin{isabelle}%
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\ \ \ \ \ same{\isacharunderscore}fst\ P\ R\ {\isasymequiv}\ {\isacharbraceleft}{\isacharparenleft}{\isacharparenleft}x{\isacharprime}{\isacharcomma}\ y{\isacharprime}{\isacharparenright}{\isacharcomma}\ x{\isacharcomma}\ y{\isacharparenright}{\isachardot}\ x{\isacharprime}\ {\isacharequal}\ x\ {\isasymand}\ P\ x\ {\isasymand}\ {\isacharparenleft}y{\isacharprime}{\isacharcomma}\ y{\isacharparenright}\ {\isasymin}\ R\ x{\isacharbraceright}%
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\end{isabelle}
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This combinator is designed for
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recursive functions on pairs where the first component of the argument is
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passed unchanged to all recursive calls. Given a constraint on the first
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component and a relation on the second component, \isa{same{\isacharunderscore}fst} builds the
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required relation on pairs. The theorem
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\begin{isabelle}%
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\ \ \ \ \ {\isacharparenleft}{\isasymAnd}x{\isachardot}\ P\ x\ {\isasymLongrightarrow}\ wf\ {\isacharparenleft}R\ x{\isacharparenright}{\isacharparenright}\ {\isasymLongrightarrow}\ wf\ {\isacharparenleft}same{\isacharunderscore}fst\ P\ R{\isacharparenright}%
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\end{isabelle}
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is known to the well-foundedness prover of \isacommand{recdef}. Thus
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well-foundedness of the relation given to \isacommand{recdef} is immediate.
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Furthermore, each recursive call descends along that relation: the first
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argument stays unchanged and the second one descends along \isa{step{\isadigit{1}}\ f}. The proof requires unfolding the definition of \isa{step{\isadigit{1}}},
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as specified in the \isacommand{hints} above.
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Normally you will then derive the following conditional variant from
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the recursion equation:%
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\end{isamarkuptext}%
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\isamarkuptrue%
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\isacommand{lemma}\ {\isacharbrackleft}simp{\isacharbrackright}{\isacharcolon}\isanewline
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\ \ {\isachardoublequote}wf{\isacharparenleft}step{\isadigit{1}}\ f{\isacharparenright}\ {\isasymLongrightarrow}\ find{\isacharparenleft}f{\isacharcomma}x{\isacharparenright}\ {\isacharequal}\ {\isacharparenleft}if\ f\ x\ {\isacharequal}\ x\ then\ x\ else\ find{\isacharparenleft}f{\isacharcomma}\ f\ x{\isacharparenright}{\isacharparenright}{\isachardoublequote}\isanewline
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\isamarkupfalse%
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\isacommand{by}\ simp\isamarkupfalse%
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%
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\begin{isamarkuptext}%
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\noindent Then you should disable the original recursion equation:%
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\end{isamarkuptext}%
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\isamarkuptrue%
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\isacommand{declare}\ find{\isachardot}simps{\isacharbrackleft}simp\ del{\isacharbrackright}\isamarkupfalse%
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%
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\begin{isamarkuptext}%
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Reasoning about such underdefined functions is like that for other
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recursive functions. Here is a simple example of recursion induction:%
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\end{isamarkuptext}%
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\isamarkuptrue%
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\isacommand{lemma}\ {\isachardoublequote}wf{\isacharparenleft}step{\isadigit{1}}\ f{\isacharparenright}\ {\isasymlongrightarrow}\ f{\isacharparenleft}find{\isacharparenleft}f{\isacharcomma}x{\isacharparenright}{\isacharparenright}\ {\isacharequal}\ find{\isacharparenleft}f{\isacharcomma}x{\isacharparenright}{\isachardoublequote}\isanewline
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\isamarkupfalse%
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\isacommand{apply}{\isacharparenleft}induct{\isacharunderscore}tac\ f\ x\ rule{\isacharcolon}find{\isachardot}induct{\isacharparenright}\isanewline
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\isamarkupfalse%
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\isacommand{apply}\ simp\isanewline
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\isamarkupfalse%
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\isacommand{done}\isamarkupfalse%
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%
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\isamarkupsubsubsection{The {\tt\slshape while} Combinator%
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}
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\isamarkuptrue%
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%
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\begin{isamarkuptext}%
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If the recursive function happens to be tail recursive, its
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definition becomes a triviality if based on the predefined \cdx{while}
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combinator. The latter lives in the Library theory
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\thydx{While_Combinator}, which is not part of \isa{Main} but needs to
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be included explicitly among the ancestor theories.
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Constant \isa{while} is of type \isa{{\isacharparenleft}{\isacharprime}a\ {\isasymRightarrow}\ bool{\isacharparenright}\ {\isasymRightarrow}\ {\isacharparenleft}{\isacharprime}a\ {\isasymRightarrow}\ {\isacharprime}a{\isacharparenright}\ {\isasymRightarrow}\ {\isacharprime}a}
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and satisfies the recursion equation \begin{isabelle}%
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\ \ \ \ \ while\ b\ c\ s\ {\isacharequal}\ {\isacharparenleft}if\ b\ s\ then\ while\ b\ c\ {\isacharparenleft}c\ s{\isacharparenright}\ else\ s{\isacharparenright}%
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\end{isabelle}
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That is, \isa{while\ b\ c\ s} is equivalent to the imperative program
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\begin{verbatim}
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x := s; while b(x) do x := c(x); return x
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\end{verbatim}
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In general, \isa{s} will be a tuple or record. As an example
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consider the following definition of function \isa{find}:%
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\end{isamarkuptext}%
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\isamarkuptrue%
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\isacommand{constdefs}\ find{\isadigit{2}}\ {\isacharcolon}{\isacharcolon}\ {\isachardoublequote}{\isacharparenleft}{\isacharprime}a\ {\isasymRightarrow}\ {\isacharprime}a{\isacharparenright}\ {\isasymRightarrow}\ {\isacharprime}a\ {\isasymRightarrow}\ {\isacharprime}a{\isachardoublequote}\isanewline
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\ \ {\isachardoublequote}find{\isadigit{2}}\ f\ x\ {\isasymequiv}\isanewline
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\ \ \ fst{\isacharparenleft}while\ {\isacharparenleft}{\isasymlambda}{\isacharparenleft}x{\isacharcomma}x{\isacharprime}{\isacharparenright}{\isachardot}\ x{\isacharprime}\ {\isasymnoteq}\ x{\isacharparenright}\ {\isacharparenleft}{\isasymlambda}{\isacharparenleft}x{\isacharcomma}x{\isacharprime}{\isacharparenright}{\isachardot}\ {\isacharparenleft}x{\isacharprime}{\isacharcomma}f\ x{\isacharprime}{\isacharparenright}{\isacharparenright}\ {\isacharparenleft}x{\isacharcomma}f\ x{\isacharparenright}{\isacharparenright}{\isachardoublequote}\isamarkupfalse%
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%
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\begin{isamarkuptext}%
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\noindent
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The loop operates on two ``local variables'' \isa{x} and \isa{x{\isacharprime}}
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containing the ``current'' and the ``next'' value of function \isa{f}.
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They are initialized with the global \isa{x} and \isa{f\ x}. At the
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end \isa{fst} selects the local \isa{x}.
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Although the definition of tail recursive functions via \isa{while} avoids
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termination proofs, there is no free lunch. When proving properties of
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functions defined by \isa{while}, termination rears its ugly head
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again. Here is \tdx{while_rule}, the well known proof rule for total
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correctness of loops expressed with \isa{while}:
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\begin{isabelle}%
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\ \ \ \ \ {\isasymlbrakk}P\ s{\isacharsemicolon}\ {\isasymAnd}s{\isachardot}\ {\isasymlbrakk}P\ s{\isacharsemicolon}\ b\ s{\isasymrbrakk}\ {\isasymLongrightarrow}\ P\ {\isacharparenleft}c\ s{\isacharparenright}{\isacharsemicolon}\isanewline
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\isaindent{\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ }{\isasymAnd}s{\isachardot}\ {\isasymlbrakk}P\ s{\isacharsemicolon}\ {\isasymnot}\ b\ s{\isasymrbrakk}\ {\isasymLongrightarrow}\ Q\ s{\isacharsemicolon}\ wf\ r{\isacharsemicolon}\isanewline
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\isaindent{\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ }{\isasymAnd}s{\isachardot}\ {\isasymlbrakk}P\ s{\isacharsemicolon}\ b\ s{\isasymrbrakk}\ {\isasymLongrightarrow}\ {\isacharparenleft}c\ s{\isacharcomma}\ s{\isacharparenright}\ {\isasymin}\ r{\isasymrbrakk}\isanewline
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\isaindent{\ \ \ \ \ }{\isasymLongrightarrow}\ Q\ {\isacharparenleft}while\ b\ c\ s{\isacharparenright}%
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\end{isabelle} \isa{P} needs to be true of
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the initial state \isa{s} and invariant under \isa{c} (premises 1
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and~2). The post-condition \isa{Q} must become true when leaving the loop
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(premise~3). And each loop iteration must descend along a well-founded
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relation \isa{r} (premises 4 and~5).
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Let us now prove that \isa{find{\isadigit{2}}} does indeed find a fixed point. Instead
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of induction we apply the above while rule, suitably instantiated.
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Only the final premise of \isa{while{\isacharunderscore}rule} is left unproved
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by \isa{auto} but falls to \isa{simp}:%
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\end{isamarkuptext}%
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\isamarkuptrue%
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\isacommand{lemma}\ lem{\isacharcolon}\ {\isachardoublequote}wf{\isacharparenleft}step{\isadigit{1}}\ f{\isacharparenright}\ {\isasymLongrightarrow}\isanewline
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\ \ {\isasymexists}y{\isachardot}\ while\ {\isacharparenleft}{\isasymlambda}{\isacharparenleft}x{\isacharcomma}x{\isacharprime}{\isacharparenright}{\isachardot}\ x{\isacharprime}\ {\isasymnoteq}\ x{\isacharparenright}\ {\isacharparenleft}{\isasymlambda}{\isacharparenleft}x{\isacharcomma}x{\isacharprime}{\isacharparenright}{\isachardot}\ {\isacharparenleft}x{\isacharprime}{\isacharcomma}f\ x{\isacharprime}{\isacharparenright}{\isacharparenright}\ {\isacharparenleft}x{\isacharcomma}f\ x{\isacharparenright}\ {\isacharequal}\ {\isacharparenleft}y{\isacharcomma}y{\isacharparenright}\ {\isasymand}\isanewline
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\ \ \ \ \ \ \ f\ y\ {\isacharequal}\ y{\isachardoublequote}\isanewline
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\isamarkupfalse%
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\isacommand{apply}{\isacharparenleft}rule{\isacharunderscore}tac\ P\ {\isacharequal}\ {\isachardoublequote}{\isasymlambda}{\isacharparenleft}x{\isacharcomma}x{\isacharprime}{\isacharparenright}{\isachardot}\ x{\isacharprime}\ {\isacharequal}\ f\ x{\isachardoublequote}\ \isakeyword{and}\isanewline
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\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ r\ {\isacharequal}\ {\isachardoublequote}inv{\isacharunderscore}image\ {\isacharparenleft}step{\isadigit{1}}\ f{\isacharparenright}\ fst{\isachardoublequote}\ \isakeyword{in}\ while{\isacharunderscore}rule{\isacharparenright}\isanewline
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\isamarkupfalse%
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\isacommand{apply}\ auto\isanewline
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\isamarkupfalse%
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\isacommand{apply}{\isacharparenleft}simp\ add{\isacharcolon}inv{\isacharunderscore}image{\isacharunderscore}def\ step{\isadigit{1}}{\isacharunderscore}def{\isacharparenright}\isanewline
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\isamarkupfalse%
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\isacommand{done}\isamarkupfalse%
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%
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\begin{isamarkuptext}%
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The theorem itself is a simple consequence of this lemma:%
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\end{isamarkuptext}%
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\isamarkuptrue%
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\isacommand{theorem}\ {\isachardoublequote}wf{\isacharparenleft}step{\isadigit{1}}\ f{\isacharparenright}\ {\isasymLongrightarrow}\ f{\isacharparenleft}find{\isadigit{2}}\ f\ x{\isacharparenright}\ {\isacharequal}\ find{\isadigit{2}}\ f\ x{\isachardoublequote}\isanewline
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\isamarkupfalse%
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\isacommand{apply}{\isacharparenleft}drule{\isacharunderscore}tac\ x\ {\isacharequal}\ x\ \isakeyword{in}\ lem{\isacharparenright}\isanewline
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\isamarkupfalse%
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\isacommand{apply}{\isacharparenleft}auto\ simp\ add{\isacharcolon}find{\isadigit{2}}{\isacharunderscore}def{\isacharparenright}\isanewline
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\isamarkupfalse%
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\isacommand{done}\isamarkupfalse%
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%
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\begin{isamarkuptext}%
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Let us conclude this section on partial functions by a
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discussion of the merits of the \isa{while} combinator. We have
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already seen that the advantage of not having to
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provide a termination argument when defining a function via \isa{while} merely puts off the evil hour. On top of that, tail recursive
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functions tend to be more complicated to reason about. So why use
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\isa{while} at all? The only reason is executability: the recursion
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equation for \isa{while} is a directly executable functional
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program. This is in stark contrast to guarded recursion as introduced
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above which requires an explicit test \isa{x\ {\isasymin}\ dom\ f} in the
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function body. Unless \isa{dom} is trivial, this leads to a
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definition that is impossible to execute or prohibitively slow.
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Thus, if you are aiming for an efficiently executable definition
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of a partial function, you are likely to need \isa{while}.%
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\end{isamarkuptext}%
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\isamarkuptrue%
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\isamarkupfalse%
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\end{isabellebody}%
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%%% Local Variables:
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%%% mode: latex
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%%% TeX-master: "root"
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%%% End:
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